Fig. 6

Signaling pathway by which C₂S NPs promote osteogenesis through an autophagy effect. C₂S NPs can enter the cell and be trafficked to autophagosomes to activate autophagy and further promote the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs in vitro and in vivo. C₂S NPs can activate the mTOR/ULK1 signaling pathway to induce autophagy and activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway to promote osteogenesis. C₂S NPs can promote osteogenesis by activating autophagocytosis via the mTOR/ULK1 pathway