Table 4 Relevant studies focusing on microparticles for oxidative stress inhabition

Microscale dry powder

A 1,2,4-triazole motif and quinolinone

Lactose

Jet milling

Less than 2 μm

Bifunctional MABAs

[156]

FP, MF and SX

–

(1) Jet milling

(2) Wet polishing

(1) 2.18–2.53 μm

(2) 0.87–1.49 μm

Corticosteroids and long-acting β2-agonists

[157]

SBS or BD

–

(1) Jet milling

(2) Spray-drying

(1) 0.59–0.65 μm

(2) 0.63–0.69 μm

Short acting β agonist, synthetic glucocorticoid

[158]

dimethyl fumarate

Mannitol

Co-spray dried

0.56–1.08 μm

Nrf2 activator drug to treat pulmonary inflammation

[159]

naringin

Ethanol –water (50:50 v/v)

Co-spray dried

3.5 µm

Free-radical scavenger drug

[160]

Indacaterol and glycopyrronium

–

–

–

Decrease IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, MMP-9, PON1, increase TIMP-1 and MDA

[161]

BD and RES

Ethanol –water (80:20 v/v)

Co-spray dried

1.0 µm

DECREASE the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS induce alveolar macrophages

[162]

Resveratrol

Ethanol –water (50:50 v/v)

Spray-drying

3.86 µm

Scavenge activity of more than 50% of DPPH free radicals

[163]

Resveratrol

Ethanol–water (50:50 v/v)

Spray-drying

3.9 μm

The expression of IL-8 from Calu-3 induced with TNF-α, TGF-β1 and LPS were significantly reduced

[164]

BD

HA

Spray-drying

3.12–5.35 μm

Glucocorticoid

[165]

Sodium ascorbyl phosphate

HA

co-spray dried

3.4 µm

ANTI-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound healing properties

[166, 167]

Porous microparticles

Anthocyanin

PLGA microparticles, HA, β-cyclodextrin (porogen);

W1/O/W2 multi-emulsions

freeze drying

5 ~ 10 μm

Sustain ATH release characteristics and protract antioxidant activity for DPPH radicals

[168, 169]

BD

PLGA and PVP

modified single emulsion (O/W) solvent evaporation

freeze drying

6 μm

–

[170]

DEX

PVAX

Double emulsion method

freeze drying

13 μm

Scavenge hydrogen peroxide, diminish oxidative stress

[114]

Mucoadhesive solid lipid microparticles

FP

Alginate, chitosan and lipid

Ethanolic precipitation technique

(freeze drying)

1 ~ 5 μm

ERK1/2 pathway activation

[171]

SX

Sodium alginate, Pluronic

F68 and lipid

HPH

(freeze drying)

3.3 μm

Long-acting β2 agonist

[172]

NCMPs

NAC

(1) Phospholipidand, cholesterol;

(2) Lactose

(1) Reverse phase evaporation method

(2) Spray drying

7.2 μm

Against TBARS production

[100]

MicroRNA

l-Leucine and mannitol

(1) Oil in water (o/w) single emulsion method;

(2) Spray-drying

4.20 ~ 6.03 µm

Genes silence of IRAK1 and TRAF6

[122]

siRNA

(1) Lipidoid, PLGA

(2) mannitol or trehalose

(1) DESE

(2) Spray-drying

3.3 µm

Dispersed microembedded LPNs had preserved physicochemical characteristics as well as in vitro siRNA release profile and gene silencing

[173]

siRNA

(1) dendrimer

(2) mannitol, trehalose, inulin

(1) bulk mixing and microfluidics-based mixing

(2) spray-drying

4.8 ~ 5.6 μm

The gene silencing efficiency of the nanocomplexes is preserved upon spray drying

[174]

Nanocomposite microparticles (NCMPs)

Curcumin

(1) PLGA;

PEG-g-Cs copolymer or Cs

(1) Modified single emulsion − solvent evaporation method;

(2) Spray-drying

3.1–3.9 μm

Microparticles have minimal propensity to induce TNF-α release which showed much delayed and reduced macrophage uptake

[175]

BD

(1) TPGS

(2) Leucine or albumin

(1) High-energy wet media milling;

(2) Spray drying

4.39 ~ 5.30 μm

Anti-inflammatory activity

[176]

Apigenin

(1) BSA

(2) lactose and l-leucine

(1) Modified nanoparticle albumin-bound technology

(2) Spray drying

2.47 μm

Antioxidant activity of drug is preserved and enhanced by the BSA;, scavenge the DPPH free radial

[177]

Clinical study

Ribavirin –PRINT –CFI

35% ribavirin with 55% trehalose and 10% trileucine

Non-wetting Templates (PRINT) technology

1 μm

Against the key respiratory viruses that can cause acute exacerbations in COPD

[178]

Ribavirin-97 PRINT-IP

1% PVA

Non-wetting Templates (PRINT) technology

1 μm