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Table 2 Main synthetic method of UCNP and advantages and disadvantages

From: Recent progress in the development of upconversion nanomaterials in bioimaging and disease treatment

Main synthetic method

Examples and refs

Size range (nm)

Advantages

Disadvantages

Thermal decomposition method

NaNdF4 [44]

β-NaErF4 [68]

50–500

High-quality, uniform size

Intermediate toxicity, high cost

Microemulsion method

LaF3 [99]

NaYF4 [85],

40–500

Easy to operate, narrow size, high stability,

Calcination or annealing usually required

Phase transfer hydrothermal synthesis

(La-Dy)VO4 [100], YVO4 [100], NaYF4 [64],

10–1000

Good dispersion, simple procedures, tunable size

Specialized reaction vessels are needed

Sol–gel processing

GdVO4 [101] 01

30–600

Cheap raw materials, simple procedures

Broad particle size and unsuitable for bioapplication