From: Recent progress in the development of upconversion nanomaterials in bioimaging and disease treatment
Main synthetic method | Examples and refs | Size range (nm) | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal decomposition method | NaNdF4 [44] β-NaErF4 [68] | 50–500 | High-quality, uniform size | Intermediate toxicity, high cost |
Microemulsion method | LaF3 [99] NaYF4 [85], | 40–500 | Easy to operate, narrow size, high stability, | Calcination or annealing usually required |
Phase transfer hydrothermal synthesis | 10–1000 | Good dispersion, simple procedures, tunable size | Specialized reaction vessels are needed | |
Sol–gel processing | GdVO4 [101] 01 | 30–600 | Cheap raw materials, simple procedures | Broad particle size and unsuitable for bioapplication |