Table 1 Nanoparticles, assisting immunotherapy in breast cancer

Lipid-based

 Liposome

Ursolic acid

Inhibition of STAT5 phosphorylation and IL-10 secretion

[64]

 Liposome modified with PEG

Cyclic diguanylate monophosphate and monophosphoryl lipid A

Increased number of APCs and NK cells

[62]

 Liposome

cGAMP

Conversion of M2-like phenotype towards M1-like phenotype, enhancement of MHC and costimulatory molecules

[61]

 Liposome

Paclitaxel, thioridazine and HY19991

Infiltration of CD4 + and CD8 + T cells into the tumors and consequent attacking of CSCs

[97]

 Nanoliposome

Multi-epitope peptides derived from cancer cells

Improved cytotoxic T cell responses and production of IFN-γ

[70]

 Lipid calcium phosphate modified with mannose

MUC1 mRNA

Induction of a strong, antigen-specific, in vivo cytotoxic T lymphocyte response against TNBC

[74]

 Lipid nanoparticle

Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor and mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors

Increased M1-like phenotype at tumor microenvironment

[69]

 Cationic lipid-assisted nanoparticles

Lactate dehydrogenase A-siRNA

Neutralized tumor pH and increased infiltration of CD8 + T and NK cells

[80]

Polymer-based Protein/polysacharide based

 PBAEs

cyclin-dependent kinase 5—CRISPR-Cas9

Downregulation of PD-L1 expression

[76]

 PEG-chitosan-lactate

A2 adenosine receptor

Blockage of PKA/CREB signaling pathway, leading to Treg inhibition

[78]

 Chitosan-lactate

CD69-specific siRNA

Generation of inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-17

[79]

 PLGA coated with human cancer cell membrane fractions

–

Enhanced CD8 + and CD4 + T-lymphocyte populations

[72]

 PLGA

CpG coated tumor antigen

Increased expression of CD80/86 and elevated secretion of IL-12

[73]

 PLGA-b-PEG modified with triphenyl phosphonium

Zinc phthalocyanine

Release of tumor antigens and thereby activation of DCs, and overexpression of IFN-γ

[96]

 Albumin

doxorubicin and T780

Activation of T cell-mediated antitumor immune response and induction of ICD

[89]

Inorganic

 Gold nanoparticle

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide

Activation of DCs, enhanced cytokine production and proliferation of CD4 + and CD8 + T cells in splenocytes

[65]

 Layered double hydroxide nanoparticles

Indocyanine green, doxorubicin, and CpG

Eradication of primary tumor and prevention of tumor recurrence and metastasis

[87]

 Copper sulfide nanoparticles modified with maleimide-PEG

–

Creation of tumor immunogenetic microenvironment, followed by enhancement in the number of tumor-infiltrating CD8 + T cells

[93]

Hybrid nanoparticle

 Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with reduced-graphene oxide (rGO) and PEG

–

Induction of DC activation and ICD in tumor draining lymph nodes

[92]

 Albumin coated aluminum hydroxide oxide

Melittin and chlorin e6

Increased generation of reactive oxygen species and consequent ICD

[85]

Naturally derived

 Viral capsid VP2 protein

Multi-neoepitopes including Tmtc2, Gprc5 Qars, and surviving

Enhanced proliferative responses of CD8 + and CD4 + T lymphocytes and generation of granzyme-B in lymphatic nodes local to the tumor

[106]

 EVs from NK-92MI cells

IL-15

Increased cytotoxicity against cancer cells

[111]

 Lambda phage coat protein gpD

AE37 peptide

Generation of robust immune responses in TUBO model of breast cancer

[108]