Fig. 2

(adapted from ref.[57]) of the intracellular recording from a Patch-clamp pipette; Here, \({V}_{m}\), \({C}_{m}\) and \({R}_{m}\) denote the membrane potential, capacitance and resistance, respectively; \({V}_{rest}\)represents the rest potential; \({R}_{seal}\)represents the seal resistance; \({R}_{s}\)represents the resistance in series; \({V}_{p}\)represents the signal recorded by the pipette. b Nanoelectrodes based on direct electrical contact with the cytoplasm; Here, \({R}_{ee}\) and \({C}_{ee}\) denote the resistance and capacitance of the interface between the microelectrode and the electrolyte solution, respectively; \({R}_{i}\)represents the electrode impedance and \({V}_{e}\) reflects the signal recorded by the electrode. c Nanoscale field-effect transistors; Here, the symbol “S” and “D” represent the source and drain components, respectively. d Micro-mushroom-shaped nanoelectrodes. Here, \({R}_{spread}\) represents the resistance encountered by the current spreading from the microelectrode surface to the electrolyte solution