Table 2 Summary of artificial exosomes generated by bottom-up approaches
Preparation | Particle characterization | Comparison to natural exosomes | Advances | Application | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liposomes (PC, CHOL, DSPE-PEG2000, DSPE-PEG-MAL) coupled with MHC peptide complexes | Size by TEM: about 100Â nm | NA | Targeted and traceable artificial exosomes | Activate and expand functional antigen-specific T cells | [82] |
Liposomes (PC, SM, Chol, DOGS-NTA) bind with APO2L, TRAIL-His10 | Size ranged by DLS: 150 –200 nm | NA | Artificial exosomes with improved bioactivity | Effective treatment of antigen-induced arthritis | [83] |
Liposomes (PC, SM, Chol, DOGS-NTA-Ni) with inserted recombinant Apo2L, TRAIL | Size ranged by DLS: 150 –200 nm | NA | Artificial exosomes with improved bioactivity | Overcoming Chemoresistance of Human Hematologic Tumor Cells | [84] |
Nanoliposome (Cremophor EL, PC, DOPE, DC-Chol) coupled with DEC205 monoclonal antibody | Size by DLS: 81.64 ± 4.25 nm Zeta potential: 19.8 ± 1.8 mv | NA | Targeted artificial exosomes High encapsulation efficiency | Specifically transmit antigen to DCs to induce immune responses | [85] |
Liposomes (DOPC, SM, Chol, DOPS, DOPE) coated chitosan with embedded Cx43 proteins | Size by DLS: 120 ± 4 nm Zeta potential: -8 ± 2 mv | Similar size and specific protein marker | High biocompatibility Effective cytosolic delivery capability | Biomimetic siRNA delivery vehicles | [86] |
Liposomes (Chol, PC, SM, Cer) tailored with integrin α6β4 | Size by DLS: 113 ± 1 Zeta potential: − 5 ± 2 | Similar size, structure and delivery efficiency | Production methodology and regulations | Targeted delivery of therapeutic oligonucleotides to lung cancer | [87] |
Liposomes (DMPC, DSPC, DOPC, Chol) and leukocyte membrane proteins | Size by DLS: 122 ± 1.2 nm Zeta potential: − 14 mv | NA | Large-scale and fast preparation Stable structure High drug-loading capacity Custom-tailored functionality | Targeted tumor therapy | [88] |
Liposomes (DMPC, DSPC, DOPC, Chol) and tumor cell membrane proteins | Size by DLS: 115 nm (mean) Zeta potential: − 45.6 ± 1.0 mV | NA | Large-scale and fast preparation Multifunction Stability | Targeted tumor penetration | [89] |
Liposomes (DPPC, DSPC, DOPC, Cholesterol) and hybrid cell membrane proteins (tumor cell and red blood cell) | Size by DLS: about 100 nm Zeta potential: − 17 mv | Similar size and protein markers | Large-scale and fast preparation Stable structure High drug-loading capacity Multifunction | Anti-phagocytosis capability and targeted tumor therapy | [90] |
TPE-BPA, CTAB and Fe ions | Size by DLS: less than 100 nm | NA | Fundamental understanding of natural fission–fusion processes of exosomes | Molecular configuration and siRNA delivery | [91] |