Fig. 1

The tumor microenvironment (TME) in pancreatic cancer. The expanded extracellular matrix increases interstitial stress, while collapse of blood vessels reduces oxygen levels and acidifies the pH. Low infiltration by immune cells and their phenotypic transformation inhibit anti-tumor immune responses. Various activation pathways generate cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), key cellular components of the TME. MMPs, matrix metalloproteinases; TAMs, tumor-associated macrophages; Tregs, regulatory T cells