Fig. 5

ROS overproduction and apoptosis induction in HUVE and 4T1 cells. a Intracellular ROS induction of HUVE and 4T1 cells treated with PBS, GNPs, VGB3 and GNP–VGB3 in the presence of VEGF (20 ng mL⁻¹) specified after staining with DCFH-DA by flow cytometry (scale bar: 20 μm). b Detection of ROS based on fluorescence intensity using prism 8.0 software in HUVE and 4T1 cells after treatments. c Flow cytograms of cell apoptosis in HUVE and 4T1 cells induced by PBS, GNPs, VGB3, and GNP–VGB3 in the presence of VEGF (20 ng mL⁻¹) using Annexin V/PI staining. d The total cell apoptosis in HUVE and 4T1 treated cells were obtained from the sum of early and late apoptosis, which placed at the corner of each panel (in lower-right (Annexin V-FITC+, PI−), and upper-right (Annexin V-FITC+, PI+) quadrants, respectively) and represented in the diagram using prism software. (All data analyzed based on mean ± SEM; One-way ANOVA; n = 3; number sign symbol (#) was used for comparing the treatments with control, and asterisk symbol (*) was used for comparison between treatments, ****P < 0.0001, ***P < 0.001, **P < 0.01, *P < 0.05, or ns: not significant)