Table 1 Examples of implantable nanomaterials used in bone repair
From: The advances in nanomedicine for bone and cartilage repair
Material | Fabrication Technique | Cell type/Animal modle | Outcomes | Refs. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single component | PCL | electrospinning | rMSCs | The electrospun PCL scaffolds provided an environment that supported mineralized tissue formation | [129] |
| Â | Â | electrospinning | hOB cells | A 3D thick scaffold (93% porosity) was fabricated by changing the process parameters and PCL solution characteristics | [132] |
| Â | Â | TISA | mBMSCs | The highly porous (96.4%) TISA scaffold acted as favourable synthetic ECM for functional bone regeneration through a physiological endochondral ossification process | [133] |
Nanocomposites | PCL/gelatin | electrospinning | hMSCs | The combination of PCL and gelatin endowed the scaffold with both structural stability of PCL and bioactivity of gelatin, providing a structurally and biochemically improved 3D ECM-like microenvironment for cell infiltration and proliferation within the scaffold | [135] |
| Â | PLLA/PCL | EYA | hESC-MSCs | EYA technology made it possible to construct 3D scaffolds with good mechanical strength and sufficient interconnected micropores in a functionally graded structure | [131] |
|  | PLA/nβ-TCP | freeze-dry | muscular pockets of rabbits | The nβ-TCP content significantly influenced the in vitro degradation and in vivo osteoconductive properties of the composite scaffolds | [136] |
|  | gelatin/β-TCP | electrospinning | rBMSCs | The composite scaffolds promoted osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs in vitro and bone regeneration in vivo by activating Ca2+-sensing receptor signaling | [137] |
| Â | nTiO2/PLGA | sonication | hOB cells | The nTiO2/PLGA composites sonicated to have nanometer surface roughness values could improve osteoblast functions | [138] |
|  | HA–TSF | coaxial electrospinning | MG-63 osteosarcoma cells | The nanocomposite had good biomimetic and mechanical properties and was more effective than pure silk in inducing cell adhesion, proliferation and bone formation | [148] |
| Â | nHA/PLLA | TIPS | none | The incorporation of nHA improved the mechanical properties and protein adsorption of the composite scaffolds while maintaining high porosity and suitable microarchitecture | [149] |
| Â | GelMA-GNP | photo-crosslinking | hADSCs | The hydrogels loaded with GNPs promoted proliferation, differentiation, and ALP activities of hADSCs as they differentiated towards osteoblast cells in dose-dependent manner | [154] |
| Â | Sr-GelMA | short vortex spinning | hMSCs | The addition of Sr nanoparticles greatly enhanced the printability of the composite bioink, and scaffolds bioprinted from it remained stable through 28Â days of culture, showing vast MSCs osteogenic differentiation capacity | [156] |
| Â | GelMA/MNPs | photo-crosslinking | hMSCs, MC3T3s | The adjustable mechanical properties of hydrogels could be achieved by controlling the size and concentration of MNPs | [157] |
| Â | PIC/MWCNTs | ultrasonication | rBMSCs | The introduction of MWCNTs into the PIC hydrogel could stimulate the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs | [159] |
| Â | PECE/Collagen/nHA | ultrasonication | cranial defects of New Zealand White rabbits | The hydrogel composite had both injectability and thermo-sensitivity, and showed good capacity to guide bone regeneration, which had great potential in the minimally invasive repair of bone defects | [160] |
| Â | Alginate/gelatin/SiO2 | chemical crosslinking | hUMSCs | Biocompatibility and osteogenic ability of the hydrogels were significantly increased with the addition of SiO2 | [161] |
|  | GelMA-G-MBGN | co-crosslinking | MC3T3-E1 cells | This enhanced organic − inorganic hydrogel membrane could maintain localized body fluid environment stability under the premise of promoting vascular regeneration to accelerate bone tissue reconstruction | [163] |
| Â | PNAGA-Clay | physical crosslinking | ROB | The hydrogen bonding of nanoclay contributed to the superior mechanical performances as well as swelling stability of the hydrogels | [164] |
| Â | LPN-GelMA | DW | hBMSCs | Developing a novel light-curable nanocomposite bioink for 3D skeletal regeneration supportive of cell growth and growth factor retention and delivery | [165] |
| Â | CHPOA-PEGSH | chemical crosslinking | mouse calvarial bone defect model | CHPOA/hydrogel was an efficient delivery system for coadministration of FGF18 and BMP2 with the potential to improve the ratio of complete healing of calvarial defects in individual mice | [166] |