Table 2 Biological functions of different MPs

Ordinary tumor cells

UV

Mediating M2 polarization of TAMs and promoting tumor growth and metastasis

[163]

Loading PD-L1 and inhibiting activation of CD8⁺ T cells

[68]

Facilitating the generation of type I IFN in DCs and promoting their activation through cGAS/STING signaling

[71]

Up-regulating expression of CCL2 in IECs to attract and activate DCs for tumor inhibition

[59]

Augmenting biogenesis and centripetal movement of lysosomes in tumor cells

[77]

X ray

Causing ferroptosis in tumor cells and mediating M1 polarization of TAMs

[58]

Activating stromal cells to secrete pro-angiopoietic factors

[66]

Inhibiting antitumor immunity with the carried PD-L1

[67, 68]

Hypoxia

Mediating M2 polarization of TAMs

[163]

Up-regulating expression of CCL2 in lung macrophages and promoting lung metastasis

[164]

Activating fibroblasts and endothelial cells to express pro-angiopoietic factors

[66]

Inhibiting the functions of NK cells by transferring miR-23a

[165]

Promoting focal adhesion formation, tumor invasion and metastasis

[35]

No treatment

Inhibiting the activation of B cells and promoting the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines from monocytes

[166]

Promoting antiapoptotic effect on monocytes by transferring CCR6 and CD44v7/8

[167]

Promoting the differentiation of myeloid cells and enhancing their function on inhibiting T cells activation

[168]

Inducing lymphocyte apoptosis by the carried FasL

[169]

Promoting Treg differentiation and enhancing their negative regulation of immunity

[170]

Promoting differentiation of monocytes to macrophages

[171]

Up-regulating VEGF expression in endothelial cells by the carried epidermal growth factor receptor

[172]

Inducing IL-10 production in monocytes by the carried hyaluronan

[173]

Modulating antigen cross-processing in DCs through the packaged ROS

[174]

Inducing premetastatic cell clusters and promoting liver metastasis by the carried CD36

[175]

Converting normal fibroblasts into carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) by the carried miR-155

[176]

Up-regulating expression of transforming growth factor β in macrophages by the carried phosphatidylserine

[177]

Starvation

Converting normal fibroblasts into CAFs by phosphorylating ERK1/2 and down-regulating caveolin1

[178]

Up-regulating activity of focal adhesion kinase in epithelial cells and then reorganizing extracellular matrix

[179]

Apoptogenic reagents

Activating fibroblasts through phosphorylating ERK1/2 and up-regulating MMP9

[180]

Chemo-resistant tumor cells

No treatment

Transferring resistance proteins to drug-sensitive tumor cells

[181,182,183]

Down-regulating miR-503 and up-regulating proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 of tumor cells to promote tumor migration and invasion

[184]

Increasing the release of IL-6, TNF-α and INF-γ in macrophages

[185]

Stem-cell-like cancer cells

No treatment

Converting normal endothelial cells into an activated angiogenic phenotype and promoting the formation lung premetastatic niche

[186]

Transferring tissue factor and accelerating plasma coagulation

[187]

Endothelial cells

Starvation

Activating angiogenesis in recipient cells by transferring mRNA

[188]

Promoting anti-inflammatory effects by transferring miR-222 and reducing ICAM-1 expression in endothelial cells

[189]

TNF-α

Up-regulating the expression of ICAM-1 in endothelial cells

[190]

Converting endothelial cells into an anti-atherogenic phenotype by transferring miR-126, miR-21 and miR-155

[191]

Inducing plasmacytoid DCs maturation and production of inflammatory cytokines

Promoting proliferation and production of IFN-γ and TNF-α in CD4⁺ T cells

[192]

Increasing monocyte adhesion by up-regulating the expression of ICAM-1 in endothelial cells

Mediating apoptosis and inflammation of endothelial cells

[36]

CAFs

No treatment

Promoting generation of stem-cell-like cancer cells and resistance to hormonal therapy by transferring miR-221

[193]

Platelets

No treatment

Inducing angiogenesis through VEGF, heparanase, and platelet derived growth factor

[194]

Stimulating proliferation and invasion of tumor cells by transferring integrin CD41

[195]

Inducing epithelial to mesenchymal transition in tumor cells by transferring miR-939

[60]

Mediating mitochondrial dysfunction and growth inhibition in tumor cells by transferring miR-24

[196]

Promoting angiogenesis, tissue regeneration and cancer metastasis

[61]

ADP

Increasing the production of lipoxin A4 in mast cells by transferring ipoxygenase 12

[197]

High-shear

Increasing the expression of IL-8, IL-1β and TNF-α in macrophages

Up-regulating the production of IL-8, IL-1β and IL-6 in endothelial cells

[198]

TNF-α

Incapable of inducing plasmacytoid DCs maturation

[192]

Erythrocytes

Hypotonic solutions

Falsely “mark” nucleated cells as apoptotic by transferring phosphatidylserine

[42]

Monocytes

LPS

P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 on the MPs interacted with P-selectin on the platelets and activated platelets to initiate coagulation

[199]

Promoting pro-inflammatory and procoagulant properties of endothelial cells by transferring transcripts of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8

[200]

No treatment

Promoting angiogenesis by transferring miR-150 to endothelial cells

[201]

Macrophages

LPS

Inducing expression of ICAM-1 and release of keratinocyte-derived cytokine by transferring TNF-α

[202]

Lm infection

Transferring antigens of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) to DCs for antigen presentation

[203]

T lymphocytes

Inducers of apoptosis

Inducing apoptosis and stimulating release of MPs in macrophages

[204]

Starvation

Converting fibroblasts into osteoclasts by up-regulating IL-15, MMP9 and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand in odontogenic keratocysts

[205]

TNF-α

Incapable of inducing plasmacytoid DCs maturation

[192]

UV

Incapable of mediating M2 polarization of TAMs

[163]

No treatment

Inhibiting growth and migration of retinal endothelial cells in vitro, and decreasing VEGF-induced retinal vascular leakage in vivo

[206]

Splenic cells

PMA

Increasing tumor metastasis by transferring integrin α(M)β₂

[207]

Yeast cells

NaOH and heat

Activating DCs through Dectin-1/Syk pathway and TLR2/MyD88 pathway

[78]