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Table 1 Common techniques and methods used for NP characterization

From: Nanoparticle classification, physicochemical properties, characterization, and applications: a comprehensive review for biologists

 

Technique

Properties and features that can be resolved by each technique

 

Size

Shape

Dispersity

Localization

Agglomeration

Surface morphology

Surface area

Pore size

Literature

Morphological and topographical

TEM

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

    

[137, 309]

SEM

✓

✓

✓

 

✓

    

[138, 310]

STM

     

✓

  

[139, 311]

DLS

✓

 

✓

      

[142,143,144]

NTA

✓

 

✓

      

[147, 148]

BET

       

✓

 

[150,151,152,153]

BJH

        

✓

[150,151,152,153]

 

Technique

Composition

Phase

Crystallinity

Functionalization

Oxidation

Surface charge

Polarity

Bonding

Electrochemical

Literature

Structural and chemical

XRD

 

✓

✓

      

[142, 153]

 

EDX

✓

        

[161,162,163,164]

 

HAADF

✓

        

[167,168,169]

 

XPS

✓

   

✓

  

✓

✓

[172,173,174,175]

 

FTIR

✓

  

✓

✓

 

✓

✓

 

[179, 180]

 

Zeta potential

     

✓

   

[182,183,184,185,186]

 

CV

    

✓

   

✓

[190, 191]

 

Raman spectroscopy

  

✓

    

✓

 

[195, 196]

 

Technique

Toughness

Tensile strength

Compressive strength

Elasticity

Viscoelasticity

Hardness

Stiffness

  

Literature

Mechanical

UTM

 

✓

✓

✓

     

[255, 256]

 

Nano-indentation

✓

 

✓

✓

 

✓

   

[258, 259]

 

DMA

    

✓

 

✓

  

[261, 262]

 

Technique

Absorption

Reflectance

Fluorescence

Luminescence

Bandgap

Electronic state

Photoactivity

Electrical conductance

 

Literature

Optical, electronic, and electrical

Raman spectroscopy

     

✓

   

[195, 196]

 

SERS

     

✓

   

[197]

 

UV–vis

✓

✓

  

✓

    

[200,201,202,203,204]

 

PL

  

✓

✓

     

[200,201,202,203,204]

 

DRS

    

✓

✓

✓

✓

 

[206,207,208]

 

Ellipsometry

✓

✓

     

✓

 

[211, 212]

 

Technique

Saturation magnetization

 

Remnant magnetization

Coercivity

g-factor

Magnetic field intensity

Magnetic force

Magnetic susceptibility

 

Literature

Magnetic

MFM

    

✓

✓

✓

  

[216,217,218]

 

VSM

✓

 

✓

✓

     

[221, 222]

 

SQUID

✓

 

✓

✓

    

✓`

[226, 227]

 

ESR

    

✓

    

[231, 232]

 

Technique

Melting point

 

Crystallization point

Structural-phase transition

Heat capacity

 

Thermal conductivity

Thermal Stability

Oxidative stability

Literature

Thermal

DSC

✓

 

✓

✓

✓

   

✓

[238, 239]

 

DTA

✓

 

✓

✓

    

✓

[249, 250]

 

TGA

✓

  

✓

   

✓

 

[249, 250]

 

THW

      

✓

✓

 

[252, 253]

  1. The physicochemical properties and features that can be resolved by each technique or method are shown together with examples of experimental research from literature