Table 1 Summary of recent advances in porous nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy

Inorganic PNMs

 Reversing immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

MSNPs

OX/IND-MSNP

Tumor cells and APCs

A nano-enabled approach for OX and IND delivery to the PDAC site can be used for an immunotherapy response premised on the induction of ICD plus reversal of IDO immune suppressive effects

[55]

Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles

Fe₃O₄-OVA nanocomposites

BMDC and macrophages

A nanopotentiator stimulated the maturation of BMDCs and the activation of T cells and macrophages for the subsequent inhibition of the growth and metastasis of tumors

[67]

DOX NPs, (shPD-L1 + Spam1) NPs

DOX NPs and (shPD-L1 + Spam1) dual-gene codelivery NPs

Tumor cells and DCs

Immune cocktail therapy was constructed, and the nanocomposites achieved multiple activations of the cancer-immunity cycle by synergistic effects of ICT and chemotherapy

[106]

 Tumor-targeted delivery

PSiNP

PSiPs-HER-2

Tumor cells

PSiPs-HER-2 achieved specific targeting and destruction of breast cancer cells in vitro

[63]

PHNPs

PHNPs@DPA-S-S-BSA-MA@3-MA

TAMs

PHNPs@DPA-S-S-BSA-MA@3-MA showed good efficiency for targeting TAMs, activating immune responses, and inhibiting tumor growth in vivo

[51]

MSNs

Carbon nanodots-based MSNs (CD@MSNs)

NK cells, macrophages

Biodegradable CD@MSNs combined with PTT could specifically accumulate in the tumor sites and effectively inhibited tumor metastasis

[56]

MSN

MSN@polyphenol

Tumor cells

Highly biocompatible and biodegradable polyphenol-coated MSNs can achieve controlled molecule release

[57]

 Enhancing uptake and presentation

PSi

LPSiNPs

B cells

Engineered nanoparticles working with the immune system enhanced the activation of APCs and B cells

[34]

PMSN

PMSN@OVA-MPN

DC2.4 cells

PMSN@OVA-MPN promoted the OVA uptake by DC2.4 cells and enhanced tumor-specific cellular immune response for effective inhibition of tumor growth

[58]

IMHCSs

IMHCS-OVA

APCs

OVA-loaded IMHCSs enhanced uptake in APCs and induced the maturation of APCs

[59]

 Achieving multi-functionality

Mesoporous MnO₂ nanoshells

H-MnO₂-PEG/C&D

Tumor cells

Novel H-MnO₂-PEG/C&D as a multifunctional theranostic platform modulated TME and chemo-PDT therapy further enhanced immunotherapy

[73]

MSRs

MSRs loaded with GM-CSF, CpG, and OVA

BMDC

Injectable MSRs provided a 3D microenvironment and may serve as a multifunctional vaccine platform to modulate host immune cell function and provoke adaptive immune responses

[60]

CuS bMSN

CuS@mSiO₂-PFP-PEG (CPPs)

Tumor cells

Multifunctional nanoplatform CPPs achieved photoacoustic and ultrasound dual modality-guided PTT combined immunotherapy

[75]

bMSN

bMSN (CpG/Ce6)

DCs

Biodegradable MSN vaccination is a promising platform for personalized cancer immunotherapy via the combination of imaging and PDT

[61]

PDA NPs

PDA-MB@MnO₂

Tumor cells

A safe and effective nanosystem for metastatic breast cancer treatment by the combination of supplemental oxygenation with multi-modal imaging-guided phototherapies

[107]

Pristine PLGA NPs

CNP

Tumor cells

Uniform-sized CNP significantly elevated the internalization efficiency of exogenous GM-CSF and IL-2 by tumor cells

[108]

FeSe₂ nanoflower

FeSe₂-PE

Tumor cells

The FeSe₂-PEG nanoflowers were fabricated to achieve the on-demand release of H₂Se on NIR-II photoactivation to fight against breast cancer

[62]

Organic PNMs

 Achieving multi-functionality

COF

COF@ICG@OVA

DCs

Combined with NIR irradiation and a checkpoint inhibitor, multi-functional COF@ICG@OVA suppressed tumor growth and metastasis by ROS and hyperthermia

[109]

COF

COF-609 + αCD47

Tumor cell

The study offered the first integration of PDT and immunotherapy by 3D COFs to inhibit cancer metastasis and recurrence and demonstrated a new way to design ICD inducers

[80]

Hybrid PNMs

 Reversing immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

MOF (MIL-100)

MIL-100 with MTO, hyaluronic acid

CT26 cells

Robust antitumor immunotherapy by combining PTT with chemotherapy to enhance ICD and inhibited the activity of the immunosuppressive cells in TME

[92]

MOF

MOF-OVA@CpG

APCs

Co-delivery of antigen and CpG showed significant T cell activation and cytokine release, and successful suppression of tumor growth

[93]

Biomimetic MOFs

NV-ZIF nivolumab

PBMCs

NV-ZIF showed a higher efficacy to activate T cells in hematological malignancies. Modified by coating with CCM to enable tumor-specific targeted delivery

[94]

ZIF-8 NPs

ZIF-8/CpG ODNs

RAW264.7 cells

ZIF-8/CpG ODNs showed no cytotoxicity and promoted the uptake of CpG ODNs in RAW264.7 cells, which further increased the secretion of immune cytokines

[95]

Hf-based nMOFs

Hf12-DBA

CT26 cells

The combination of nMOF-mediated RT and PD-L1 ICB achieved effective T cell proliferation, enhanced tumor infiltration, and inhibition of the distant tumors

[96]

Hybrid Nanocarrier

Ce6/MLT@SAB

Tumor cells

Ce6/MLT@SAB-mediated PDT combined with ICB therapy further upregulated the numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in tumor sites and decreased the level of MDSCs

[97]

nMOFs

IMD@Hf-DBP/αCD47

Macrophages, tumor cells

Under X-ray irradiation, IMD@Hf-DBP/αCD47 modulated the immunosuppressive TME and activated immune events when synergized with an ICB therapy

[98]

 Tumor-targeted delivery

MOFs

CpG/ZANPs

APCs

The first facile, green synthesis of aluminium-integrated CpG/ZANPs targeted lymph nodes, and their cargo was internalized by APCs, significantly suppressing tumor growth

[99]

Calcium phosphate NPs

LCP-II NPs

Tumor cells

The novel NP composites effectively delivered siRNA to tumor sites in a xenograft model and improved the tissue distribution and uptake by tumor tissues

[110]

 Enhancing uptake and presentation

MIL-101-Fe-NH2 NPs

MOF-S-S-OVA@CpG

APCs

MOFs can improve the uptake of OVA by APCs and show promising application in the codelivery of antigens and immune adjuvants

[100]

Cationic nMOF

W-TBP/CpG/α PD-L1

DCs

Cationic W-TBP combines PDT and CpG delivery to enhance antigen presentation

[101]

Zirconium-based MOF

UiO-OVA

APCs

UiO-OVA can produce forceful antigen-mediated humoral immunity and effectively activate T lymphocyte proliferation

[102]

 Achieving multi-functionality

MOF

MOF-OVA@CpG

APCs

Co-delivery of antigen and CpG showed significant T cell activation and cytokine release, and successful suppression of tumor growth

[93]

nMOFs

IMD@Hf-DBP/αCD47

Macrophages, tumor cells

NMOFs can co-deliver multiple immunoadjuvants for macrophage therapy to boost systematic immune responses an antitumor efficacy by the combination of RT-RDT

[98]

Cuporphyrin nMOF

Cu-TBP

B16F10 cells

Cu-TBP-mediated CDT/PDT elicited systemic antitumor immune responses via triggering innate immune responses and re-activating T cells in primary and metastatic tumors

[103]

nMOF

TBP-nMOF

4T1 cells

PDT mediated by TBP-nMOF in combination with αPD-1 ICB therapy can suppress the growth of the primary tumor and metastatic tumor

[104]

MOFs

TPZ/UCSs

CT26 cells

TPZ/UCSs improved cancer treatment efficiency via the combination of NIR light-induced PDT and hypoxia-activated chemotherapy, which enhanced tissue penetration in PDT

[105]