Fig. 2
From: An overview on nanoparticle-based strategies to fight viral infections with a focus on COVID-19
Summary of the pathways via which nanovaccines can create an immune reaction. a NPs can be utilized as a vaccine program for different infected illnesses because they can transport antigens and numerous immunostimulatory molecules (TLR ligands and adjuvants). The immunostimulatory action of nanovaccines is associated with different pathways, including the depot effect, gradual discharge of vaccine antigens, and absorption of antigen-offering cells. b Antigen transport via NPs (dimensions-related permeation and tissue or organ targeting). c Depot effect supplies a long-term and continuous discharge of constant antigen. d Cross presentation of the antigen transported via the NPs (cytosolic transport) triggers antigen particular cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Antigen-presenting cell (APC); endoplasmic reticulum (ER); T cell receptor (TCR) [38, 164]