Table 4 Effects of different NPs as a delivery system and antiviral agent in SARS-COV-2 infection

CQD

Antiviral attributes

Afterward, effective cell internalization and interaction with S protein, the NPs suppressed virus function against COVID-19

[155]

Zinc-based NPs

Antiviral attributes

These NPs suppress the mucosal binding of the virus and also prevent the virus reproduction and improve host immune reaction against viral infection

[155]

GO

Immune system inducer

These NPs stimulated IFN signaling triggering in T lymphocytes and monocytes. The generation of Th1-associated reaction has been displayed as critical for disease regulation in SARS-CoV-2

[155]

Nanodiamond

Antiviral responses

Octadecylamine-functionalized and dexamethasone-adsorbed nanodiamond decreased macrophage penetration and expression of proinflammatory mediator’s iNOS and TNF-α in the mouse

[124]

NO NPs

Antiviral attributes and therapeutic agent

These NPs can inhibit the beginning of inflammatory activities, decrease injuring vascular penetrance, and preserve sufficient blood circulation

[149]

IONPs

Antiviral attributes

These NPs interact with SARS-CoV-2 S1-RBD, which decreases infection

[159]

NC

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-fibrotic attributes

These NPs can per se reduce cytokine synthesis or inhibit function via inhibiting the receptor interaction of cytokines

[181]

Magnetic NPs

Antiviral attributes

Simultaneous, magnetic NPs interact with M-protein, leading to fragmentation of S protein

Epithelial-NS, and MΦ-NS

Antiviral attributes

These nanosponges can inhibit the viral acting, and they will be capable of eliminating the severe inflammation dependent on SARS-CoV-2

[161]

Photothermal NPs

Virus binding inhibitor

These NPs showed effective capture of SARS-CoV-2, excellent photothermal efficacy, and complete suppression of viral entrance

[162]

TPNT1

Virus binding inhibitor

These NPs inhibit viral entrance via suppression of the binding of S proteins to ACE2 receptors

[163]

Silica/polyP NPs

Drug delivery system

The PolyP was entrapped in silica/polyP NPs to suppressing the connecting of S protein with ACE2

[147]

polydopamine-poly

Drug delivery system

Recombinant DNase-1-encapsulated polydopamine-poly

[148]

Novochizol™

Drug delivery system

These chitosan NPs can entrapment of various medicines to transport them to the lungs for the treatment of acute SARS-CoV-2

[149]

Ag, Au, AgAu, and Pt NPs

Drug delivery system and antiviral attributes

The noble metal NP as encouraging NPs with antiviral attributes, can deliver the HCQ and CQ to the target agent and reduce the adverse events

[150]