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Table 3 Approaches and examples of inducing tumor cell death by metal ions

From: New anti-cancer explorations based on metal ions

Metal ions

Nano-platform example

Inducing approach

Main principle

References

Fe2+, Fe3+

RCH

Ferroptosis

Lipid peroxides accumulation

[196]

NMIL-100@GOx@C

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[197]

Cu+, Cu2+

Cu-Elesclomol

Cuproptosis

Protein toxic stress

[110]

DSF@PVP/Cu-HMPB

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[198]

Ca2+

SH-CaO2

Calcicoptosis

Calcium overload

[85]

Na+

Na2S2O8

Pyroptosis

Osmotic pressure interference

[199]

K+

K3ZrF7:Yb/Er

Pyroptosis

[164]

Co2+

Co/ZIF-8/ICG/Pt

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[167]

Ce2+, Ce3+

PEG/Ce-Bi@DMSN

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[168]

Mn2+

MS@MnO2

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[200]

DSPM

Apoptosis

Immune activation

[176]

Ag+

AgNC–GOx

Apoptosis and autophagy

Biocatalysis

[201]

Ti3+

D-MOF (Ti)

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[170]

Mo4+

MoP2

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[172]

Zn2+

HZ@GD

Apoptosis

Glycolysis inhibition

[202]

Mg2+

DNF

Apoptosis

Promoting DNA crosslink

[203]

Mg2+

Apoptosis

Immune activation

[177]

Ni2+

mNiO

Apoptosis

Biocatalysis

[204]

[Ni(La1)2(Lb2)]·CH3OH

Apoptosis and autophagy

Mitophagy

[205]

Re+

CA-Re

Pyroptosis

Immune activation

[206]

Pt2+

Pt(II) complexes (C1–C6)

Apoptosis and autophagy

Impeding DNA synthesis

[192]

Ir3+

Ir(III)-Re(I)

Apoptosis and autophagy

Cell cycle inhibition

[194]

Ru2+

[Ru(bpy)2(phcpip)] (ClO4)2

Apoptosis

Cell cycle inhibition

[207]

Os2+

[Os(η6-pcym)(bphen)(dca)]PF6

Necroptosis

Eliminating cancer stem cell (CSC)

[208]