Table 2 Macrophage and macrophage-derived exosome membrane surface markers that may contribute to nanomaterials’ application

Macrophage membrane

Integrin α4β1

VCAM-1

Cell adhesion molecule: actively bind to VCAM-1 on cancer cell

[33, 35, 40, 53, 66, 110, 111, 114, 115, 132, 149, 155, 165, 168]

MAC-1

VCAM-1

Bind to flamed HUVECs or tumor tissue

[132, 139, 168]

CD47

SIRP-α receptor

Prevent the undesirable phagocytosis by inhibiting binding to receptor SIRP-α pathway

[111, 114, 115, 165]

CCR2

CCL2

Promote the recruitment of monocytes to “home” the inflammatory lesion

[112, 165]

CD36

Receptor for oxLDL

Target oxLDL

[112]

TNFR2

TNF

Adsorb cytokines

[112, 162]

CD66a

Spike protein receptor

Target and bind to the Spike protein of coronavirus

[36, 102]

CD126

IL-6 receptor

Adsorb cytokines

[36, 94, 102, 162]

CD119

IFN-γ receptor

Adsorb cytokines

[36, 94, 102]

CD135

Tyrosine kinase 3 receptor

Directly bind extracellular ligands and transduce regulatory signals

[68, 88]

CD309

VEGF receptor

Bind to VEGF and induce cell proliferation and migration

[68]

CD44

Extracellular matrix components and messenger molecules

Promote tumor progression and metastasis

[68, 139]

CSF1R

CSF1

Activates the downstream signaling pathway responsible for the polarization of TAMs to the immunosuppressive phenotype

[75]

TLR2/4

LPS receptor

Recognize LPS of Gram-negative bacteria and activates NF-κB

[94, 97, 166]

F4/80

EGF receptor

Macrophage markers in mature mice and cell-to-cell interactions

[75, 127, 140, 166]

CD206

Mannose receptors

M2 marker

[75, 116, 140, 166]

CD11a/b/c

ICAMs

Mediate cell adhesion

[75, 84, 127, 166]

CD14

LPS receptor

Recognize LPS of Gram-negative bacteria and activates NF-κB

[94]

CD130

IL6/IL6R complex

Signal-transducing molecule

[94]

CD120a/b

TNF-α/β

Adsorb cytokines and activate macrophage

[94]

CD68

-

Macrophage marker

[140]

Exosomes derived from macrophages

Arginase-1

Arginine

M2 marker

[137]

CD163

Bacterial; LPS

M2 marker; participation in immunization

[116, 137]

CD9

-

Anti-inflammation marker; cell adhesion; cell motility; tumor metastasis

[65, 150, 173]

LAMP2

Lectin -1/3 receptor

Cell adhesion; tumor metastasis

[173]

ALIX

-

Involved in exosome biogenesis

[71, 173]

TSG101

-

Exosome marker

[65, 71, 84, 131, 136, 171, 173]

CD63

-

Exosome specific marker

[71, 116, 131, 136, 150]

Calnexin

Lectin receptor

Endoplasmic reticulum marker

[136]

CD81

-

Exosome marker

[65, 150, 171]

Flotillin-1

-

Involved in exosome biogenesis

[84, 171]