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Table 2 Overview of nanomedicine designed for treatment in RCC

From: Nanomedicine for renal cell carcinoma: imaging, treatment and beyond

Treatment strategies

Therapeutic agent

Applied nanoparticles

Experimental model

Key findings

References

Image-guided surgery

Activated excretion-retarded tumor imaging (AERTI) strategy

A near-infrared peptide probe (self-assembles into nanofibers)

786-O cell line and tumor-bearing nude mice

Achieve an accurate identification of the tumor boundaries and detection of minimal tumors

[88, 89]

Intratumoral injections of 99mTc-nanocolloid

99mTc-nanocolloid

Clinical trial

Locate and sample the sentinel nodes at surgery

[83,84,85]

Targeted drugs

Sorafenib-loaded poly acid and DPPC liposome nanoparticles

PLGA, DPPC liposome and HMC-coated DPPC liposomes

786-O cell line

Optimize drug delivery and tumor cellular kill thereby improving the quality of Sorafenib-regimented therapy

[92]

Liposomes encapsulating a multi-receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor

Liposomes

769-P, ACHN, A498 and Caki-1cell lines and xenograft model

Improve intratumoral concentration, enhance antitumor efficacy and reduce toxicities

[93]

Focused ultrasound-triggered release of tyrosine kinase inhibitor from thermosensitive liposomes

Thermosensitive liposomes

786-O cell line

Enhance drug delivery and cancer treatment by this combination

[94]

Sorafenib combined with tumor hypoxia directed nanoparticles

Versatile tumor hypoxia directed nanoplatform

Human RCC A498 cells and its tumor model

Reverse drug-resistance and re-educe tumor-associated macrophages

[95]

PEG-EGCG used as such a carrier forming Sunitinib-loaded micellar nanocomplex (SU-MNC)

Micellar nanocomplex

ACHN and A498 HRCC-xenograft models

The carrier-drug synergies with the high-performance carrier and tumor-targeted delivery

[96]

Chemotherapy

Liposomes encapsulating doxorubicin

Liposomes

OS-RC-2 cells and RCC xenograft mice model

Treat drug resistant RCC via the disruption of tumor endothelial cells

[100, 101]

A novel tumor-targeted liposomal formulation loaded with everolimus and vinorelbine

Liposomal formulation

786-O, A498 cell lines and its xenograft model

Inhibit tumor growth and lung metastasis

[20]

An oxygen nanocarrier combined with decitabine

Oxygen nanocarrier based on hemoglobin (H-NPs)

786-O, 769-P, Caki-1-1, ACHN, RCC4 cell lines, nu mice and human renal normal tumor samples

Alleviate resistance to oxaliplatin and decitabine in RCC cells under hypoxia

[102]

Recognition-reaction-aggregation cascaded strategy and doxorubicin

Self-assembled superstructure (nanoparticles) on the cancer cell membrane

SK-RC-52 cell line and its tumor-bearing mice

Significantly inhibits the tumor growth

[19]

Radiotherapy

X-ray radiation and black phosphorus quantum dots

Black phosphorus quantum dots

786-O, A498 cell lines and tumor-bearing mice

Enhance ionizing radiation-induced apoptotic cell death of RCC cells

[104]

Native medicine

Plitidepsin

Polymer nanoparticles

MRI-H-121 cell tumor bearing mice

Present lower liver and kidney accumulation; reduce the growth rate of tumors

[105]

Chlorogenic acid (CGA)

Chitosan nanoparticles (nano-sized colloidal delivery vector)

786-O cell line

Enhance antioxidant properties, intracellular accumulation, and antiproliferative activity

[106]

Lupeol (Lup)

Polycaprolactone/Gelatin nanofibers

ACHN cell line

Enhance cytotoxicity activity by effective diffusion and elution to the target achieved

[107]

Curcuma wenyujin

Gold nanoparticles

A498 and SW-156 cell lines

Activate proapoptotic proteins, inhibit antiapoptotic, thereby induce apoptosis

[108]

Oudemansiella raphanipies polysaccharide

Selenium nanoparticles

786-O cell line

Cellular damage induced by ROS imbalance and mitochondria-mediated pathways

[109]

Silibinin

Magnetic-core-based nanopolymeric carriers

A-498 cell line

Act as a potential carrier for targeted transportation of actives in cancer therapy

[110]

Photothermal therapy

Local heat under NIR irradiation

TiO2@red phosphorus nanorods (TiO2@RP NRs)

OS-RC-2, 786-O cells and tumor-bearing mice

Kill RCC cells by producing local heat and ROS

[112]

The phase transition temperature and endoplasmic reticulum stress

tLyP-1/PR-619/Fe3O4@PCM (tPF@PCM)

786-O cell line and mouse xenograft model

Exacerbate endoplasmic reticulum stress, induce apoptosis and the favorable synergistic antitumor efficacy

[113]

Local hyperthermia; lonidamine

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles

786-O cell line and RCC tumor-bearing mice

Enhance antiproliferative and tumor suppressing abilities

[114]

Hyperthermic temperature

Gold nanorods

Caki-2 cell line

Dual capabilities as photothermal agents and autofluorescence enhancer to track cell death

[115]

Laser thermal ablation; sorafenib

Gold nanorod encapsulated albumin

786-O cell line and mouse xenograft model

Significant synergistic tumor necrosis greater than each individual arm alone

[116, 117]

Gene therapy

pVHL complexes

Polyethyleneimine-derived nanoparticles

OS-RC-2 cell line and mouse xenograft model

Have increased transfection efficiency and obviously lower toxicities

[121]

VEGFR (fms-like tyrosine kinase-1: sFlt-1)

Neutral lipid envelope-type nanoparticle

OS-RC-2-bearing mice

Promising gene carrier for targeting tumors for curing RCC

[122]

AIM2 gene

H1/pAIM2 nanoparticles

786‐O and OS-RC‐2 cell lines; xenograft model

Inhibit malignancies of renal cancer through enhancing the inflammasome pathway

[123]

Simultaneously inject Sorafenib and PH1/pHGFK1

PH1/pHGFK1 nanoparticles

Ketr-3, 786-O, and ACHN cell lines and tumor-bearing nude mice

Enhance anti-tumor activities of sorafenib and reverse its drug resistance evolution

[124]

LNP formulation of siRNAs targeting VEGF and kinesin spindle proteins (ALN-VSP)

Lipid nanoparticles

Clinical trial

Experienced 12–18 months of tumor stabilization

[125]

siRNAs

Multifunctional envelope-type nanodevice (MEND)

OS-RC‐2 cell line; mouse xenograft model

Deliver siRNA to a target cell in tumor tissue through an improved siRNA bioavailability

[126,127,128]

siVEGF

Nanogel complex

RCC cell lines; xenograft model

Result in efficient knockdown of VEGF

[129, 130]

siLim1

Polydiacetylenic nanofibers (PDA-NFs)

786-O cell line and mouse xenograft model

Efficiently silence the oncogene Lim-1; an innovative system for delivery of siRNAs

[131]

siRNA

Purified glycogen polycationic derivatives (PGPD)

Renal cancer cells

The delivery of nucleic acids

[132]

miRNA-143

Polyion complex (PIC)-loaded miRNA-143#12

Caki-1 cell line and mouse xenograft model

Induce a marked growth inhibition by impairing K-RAS-signaling networks

[133]

Tumor vaccine

H1-pAIM2/pCAIX vaccine; H1-pHMGB1/pB7H3 vaccine

H1 nanoparticles

HEK293T cell line and mouse xenograft model

Enhance tumor-specific multi-functional CD8 + T-cell responses

[136, 138]

CS-pL-Myc/pCAIX vaccine

Chitosan nanoparticles

HEK293T cell line and mouse xenograft model

Induce multi-functional CD8 + T cell responses and inhibit lung metastasis

[137]

Short peptide particles

Liposomes

RENCA cells and mouse xenograft model

A viable therapeutic approach via multivalent particle immunization

[139]