Table 1 Effects of NPs on plants

PMMA-NPs

131.3

Lettuce

Decrease of growth, water content and osmotic potential;

Reduce stomatal conductance and destroy the reaction center of photosystems; Induced oxidative stress

[17]

PS-NPs

93.6

Lettuce

Reduce the plant biomass, height and leaf area;

Electrolyte leakage rate increased significantly;

Lead to oxidative stress and damage of antioxidant system;

Reduce the content of micronutrients and essential amino acids

[25]

PS-NPs

19 ± 0.16

Rice

Enhance the activities of antioxidant enzymes;

Alter phytohormone biosynthesis in anti-stress metabolic pathways

[57]

ZnO NPs

68.14

Coffee

Promote the growth and biomass accumulation

[77]

Fe NPs

52.4 ± 5.1

Pepper

Stimulate the growth of pepper seedlings;

Change leaf tissue; Increase chloroplast number and particle accumulation;

Regulate vascular bundle development

[78]

Cu NPs

33

Pigeon pea

Increased the height, root length, fresh weight and dry weight of seedlings

[79]

PS-NPs

50

Onion

Root elongation is inhibited at high concentrations

[81]

Ag NPs

20 ± 7, 51 ± 7 and 73 ± 5

Vicia faba

Reduce chlorophyll content and photosynthesis;

Increase the production of ROS

[83]

Ag NPs

7.5–70

Wheat

Reduce mitotic index;

Cause chromosome aberration;

Cause nuclear erosion and elongation

[84]

Al₂O₃ NPs

0–60

Soybean

Change the root surface structure and destroy root cap;

Enhance POD activity

[82]

Ag NPs

22

Cucumber

Decrease the biomass, chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of seedlings;

Inhibit photosynthesis;

Reduce zinc and iron nutrients contents

[90]

ZnO NPs

20–45

A. thaliana

Reduce the length of primary root;

Change the contents of major- and micro-nutrients

[91]

Carbon nanodots

3

A. thaliana

Root elongation is inhibited;

RNA-seq analysis indicates transcriptomics response;

The content of metabolites has changed significantly

[92]

Ag NPs

25.3

Vigna radiata and Brassica campestris

Inhibit seedling growth;

Destroy the integrity of vacuoles and cell walls

[95]

Ag NPs and

ZnO NPs

11 ± 0.7

Maize and

B. oleracea

Reduce the size of vacuoles

Reduce the turgidity and size of cells

[96]

PS-NPs

160

Wheat

Affect root cell wall and change root anatomical structure

[97]

TiO₂ NPs

28.5 ± 0.5

A. thaliana

Increase antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation;

Affect the expression level of tocopherol biosynthesis genes

[107]

Cr₂O₃ NPs

239.9, 265, 326,

340 and 336

Onion

Improve antioxidant enzyme activity;

Reduce mitotic index;

Cause chromosome aberration

[111]

PS-NPs

101.7 ± 1.7

Onion

Reduced root length Induced the production of hydroxyl and superoxide radicals

Induced chromosome abnormality and nuclear aberration

[113]

Al₂O₃, ZnO

and Ag NPs

15–60

Soybean

Affect seedling growth;

Generate oxidative stress;

Affect the protein related to secondary metabolism and cell tissue

[116]

NiO NPs

10–20

Chinese cabbage

Reduce the growth of buds and roots;

Reduce the content of chlorophyll and carotenoid;

Enhance ROS production and lipid peroxidation level;

Cause metabolic and molecular changes

[117]