Table 1 The existing nanomedicine for diagnosis of renal cell carcinoma

Laboratory examination of bodily fluids

Gold nanoparticles-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry

Human study

Distinguish types, grades and stages of human RCC

[37, 38]

High-resolution proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and silver-109 nanoparticle enhanced steel target laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry

Human study

Have potential for use in clinical prognosis and/or diagnosis

[26, 39]

Pathology

Gold nanoparticle enhanced target

Human study

Differentiate between normal and cancerous renal tissue

[40]

Silver nanoparticle enhanced target

Human study

Distinguish healthy and cancer tissue

[41,42,43]

Magnetic nanoparticle with immobilized trypsin

Human study

Differentially cluster renal oncocytoma and chromophobe RCC

[44]

Peptide-coated Au clusters with intrinsic red fluorescence and a specific mass signal

In vitro, in vivo and human study

Assess the risk of primary tumor invasion/metastasis

[47]

A new nanopore-based detection scheme

In vitro

The detection of miRNA-204 and miRNA-210 related to the RCC

[17]

Biotin-streptavidin binding and fluorescence active magnetic nanocarriers

Human study

Detectable low levels of miRNA15a through miRNA capturing nanocarriers

[54]

EVs detected by nanoparticle tracking analysis

In vitro and human study

CA9, CD70, and CD147 could represent promising markers to identify tumor-specific EVs in RCC

[55]

Shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy in microfluidic device

In vitro

Improve the detection accuracy and sensitivity of analyzed circulating tumor cells

[57]

Integration of dendrimer-mediated multivalent binding, a mixture of antibodies, and biomimetic cell rolling

In vitro

Improve the capture of RCC-CTCs by up to 80%

[58]

Imaging

Anti-G250 nanobody-functionalized targeted nanobubbles

for ultrasound

In vitro and in vivo

Specifically bind to G250-positive RCC cells and enhance

ultrasound imaging of xenografts

[64]

Targeted nanobubbles carrying CAIX polypeptides/aptamer

In vitro and in vivo

Enhance image contrast in CAIX-positive tumor tissues

[68, 69]

Lymphotropic nanoparticle-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging

Human study

Accurately distinguish benign from malignant lymph node involvement in patients with RCC

[75]

Liposomes loaded with hydrophilic magnetite nanoparticles

In vitro and in vivo

Used as the potential contrasting agents for MRI

[76]

mAb G250-SPIO molecular nanoprobe

In vitro

Used in the specific labeling of RCC cells successfully

[77]

AS1411 Aptamer Modified Mn-MoS₂ QDs

In vitro and in vivo

Fluorescently label RCC cells and present a specific MRI signal enhancement in the tumor region

[18]

Hydrophilic manganese oxide nanoparticles modified AS1411 aptamer (AS1411-PEG-MnO nanoprobe)

In vitro and in vivo

High T₁ MRI relaxivity, significant accumulation and prolonged retention in tumor

[79]

Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂/PDDA/BSA-Gd₂O₃ nano-complex

In vitro and in vivo

Good performance for tumor cell targeting and potential as a T₁-T₂ dual-mode CA

[80]

^99mTc-nanocolloid

Human study

Sentinel node mapping of renal tumors

[83,84,85,86]