Table 1 Pharmacological activity and limit of the active monomeric constituents of traditional Chinese medicine

Carotenoids

Animals, plant, fungi, algae

Maintain visual function, regulate immunity, and protect skin

Poor water solubility

[24]

Gibberellins

Plant, algae, fungi, and bacteria

Plant hormones that regulate a diverse array of developmental processes

Poor water solubility

[25, 26]

Curcumin

Curcuma longa plants in the Zingiberaceae family

Anti-tumor, reduce inflammation, and antiviral

Poor water solubility and sensitivity to light and alkaline environments

[46,47,48,49,50]

Resveratrol

The roots of Veratrum puberulum Loes

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, cardiovascular protection, neuroprotection, anti-osteoporosis, antiviral

Poor solubility in water, low oral bioavailability

[54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69]

Rosmarinic acid

Plants of the Lamiaceae and Boraginaceae families

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antithrombotic effects

Non-definite tropism of target

[76,77,78,79]

Anthocyanins

Fruits and vegetables

Anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, memory-enhancing, blood pressure-reducing, cognition-enhancing, radiation-resistance-promoting, and anti-atherosclerotic effects

Vulnerability to deterioration

[89,90,91,92]

Camptothecin

The roots, bark, and fruits of the Camptotheca acuminata Decne

Anti-tumor

Toxicity and limited solubility (not soluble in water)

[117, 118]

Vincristine

Catharanthus roseus

Anti-tumor

Peripheral Neurotoxicity, myelosuppressive toxicity, and P-glycoprotein (Pgp)-mediated resistance

[132, 133]

Berberine

The roots, stems, and leaves of Berberidaceae, Loganiaceae, and Ranunculaceae plant families

Cardioprotective and neuroprotective effects, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-tumor, anti-arrhythmic, reverse tumor multidrug resistanc

Limited solubility (not soluble in cold water)

[138, 143,144,145,146,147]

Evodiamine

Evodiamine rutaecarpa

Analgesia, anti-tumor, antibacterial, and metabolic disease regulation, antithrombotic and vasodilator activity, anti-inflammatory and anti-obesity effects, thermoregulatory and cardiovascular protection

Limited solubility

[160,161,162,163]

Piperine

Fruits of Piperaceae plants

Gastric ulcer treatment, hypolipidemic properties, antioxidant activity, antidepressant, analgesic, anti-tumor, bactericidal activity and anticonvulsant

Low water solubility

[176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198]

Emodin

The rhizome of Reynoutria japonica Houtt. and Rheum palmatum L

Detoxify, combat bacterial infections, reduce inflammation, and protect the liver, antidiabetic and anti-tumor

Poor water solubility

[200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210]

Tanshinones

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge

Anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-tumor, and anti-cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular disease benefits

Poor water solubility

[223,224,225,226,227,228,229]

Hypericin

Hypericum perforatum Linn

Treat trauma and inflammation, antibacterial, antitumor, antiviral, central nervous system inhibition, and sedation

Not soluble in wate

[244,245,246,247,248]