Table 2 Nanocarriers of the main active ingredients in traditional chinese medicines

Liposomes

Lecithin-chitosan lipid polymer

Curcumin

High encapsulation; stable in the pH of 2–6; enhanced antioxidant

[267]

phospholipid

Genistein

Higher bioavailability; enhanced liver homogenate lipid peroxidation property; histopathological alterations in liver and kidney

[412]

Hexadecyl palmitate; squalene; soybean phosphatidylcholine;

Silibinin

Slower silibinin release; enhanced therapeutic efficiency and a reduction of adverse responses

[269]

Lipid glycerol monooleate; polysorbate 80

Brucea javanica oil

Stealth properties and colloidal stability; 90% encapsulation efficiency rate; enhanced anti-tumor efficiency;

[270]

Phosphatidylcholine; phosphatidylethanolamine; phosphatidylinositol; phosphatidic acid; glycolipids; neutral lipids; chondroitin sulfate

Anthocyanins

Enhanced stability and bioavailability; higher encapsulation efficiency; increased number of apoptotic cancer cells; reduced degradation and preserved antioxidant activity

[271,272,273]

Soybean phospholipid; cholesterol

Tanshinone II A

Inhibit the proliferation of human HSCs; sustained release trend

[276]

mPEG2000-DSPE; Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine; lecithin; cholesterol

Glycyrrhizic acid; silybin

Increment of co-entrapment; suitable EE, stability, controlled release of drugs; lower IC50 on the HepG2 cancer cell line

[277]

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)

Glycerin monostearate; poloxamer; CPT-SS-PA conjugate

CPT

Great association efficiency; high stability in neutral medium and simulated gastrointestinal fluids; great cytotoxicity to various cancer cell line; enhanced oral bioavailability

[286]

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)

Soy lecithin; glyceryl; tridecanoate; glyceryl tripalmitate; vitamin E acetate;

Kolliphor HS15

Resveratrol

Showing stability in artificial gastric and/or intestinal fluids; significant anticancer activity against Hep-G2, human HCT-116, lymphoblastic leukemia cells (1301), and human MCF-7 cell lines; significant apoptotic properties; potent in vitro antioxidant activity

[294]

Compritol; labrafil 1944; lecithin; Tween-80

ART

Small particle size; good stability; high entrapment efficiency; sustainably release; more cytotoxic than free ART; apoptosis of tumor cells

[295]

Octyl decyl acid triglycerate; Tween-80; lecithin; Poloxamer 188; monostearin

Curcumin

Superior anti-cancer activity in inhibiting proliferation; inducing apoptosis of human HepG2 cells; increased total expression of DR5 protein; upregulated cell membrane expression of DR5

[296]

Solid lipid (Cap MCM C10); liquid lipid (Capmul PG8); Tween 80; PL-90G

Ganoderic acid

Compatible in hepatic nodules, hepatic, non-hepatic, antioxidant parameters, in a significant manner (p < 0.001); interferes with various cancer signaling protein

[297]

Microemulsion and nanoemulsion

R9 peptide; egg phosphatidylcholine; Mal-PEG-DSPE; PEG-DSPE; soya bean oil

Curcumin

Low cytotoxicity on HEC and low haemolytic activity; anti-inflammatory effect; increased accumulation of R9-CmLN in liver and lungs

[310]

Ethosomes and transfersomes

Folate-modified TPGS; PEG1000; cholesterol

Docetaxel

Low particles sizes and polydispersity index; high encapsulation efficiency; higher permeability into 3D U-87 MG spheroid; selectivity of transfersomes to tumoral cells

[269]

HSPC; DSPE-PEG2000; cholesterol

Eugenol and cinnamaldehyde

Improved formulation stability and percutaneous drug absorption; increase interstitial cells of Cajal; excellent deformability; improved efficacy against UC

[324]

Polymer micelles (PMs)

PEGylated PLGA polymer (Resomer® RGPd50105 and RGPd5055;

Digoxin

Across BeWo b30 cell monolayers easily; high encapsulation efficiency and sustained release; increased the permeability of digoxin

[418]

Chondroitin sulfate;

Docetaxel

High permeability and cytotoxicity of Cys-DTX prodrug, targeting transportation of encapsulated redox-responsive Cys-DTX prodrug; improved permeability in tumor tissues, enhanced cytotoxicity and decreased side effects

[398]

Cystamine; Xanthan gum

Resveratrol

Good redox responsiveness; biocompatible; controlled in vitro drug release similar to the internal environment of tumor cells

[333]

PEG-40 hydrogenated castor oil

Curcuminoid

Physically stable for at least two months; uniform droplets size and low polydispersity

[419]

Polymeric vesicles

(Poly (ethylene glycol)-b-poly (propylene thioether) (PEG-b-PPS))

Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ); tunicamycin (Tuni)

Simultaneously inducing endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and autophagic flux blockade; inhibiting tumor metastasis

[344]

PEG-PLA/PEG-PBD hybrid vesicles

Paclitaxel

Thick hydrophobic membrane and an aqueous lumen to efficiently carry both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs; higher maximum tolerated dose; controlled drug release; two-fold higher cell death in tumors than free drug

[345]

Polymer hydrogels

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) and PEG

Artemisinin

Maintain the drug concentration at a therapeutic level for up to 10 days

[351]

Poloxamer and chitosan

Herbal formula

Sustained release and enhanced nasal absorption of the active compounds

[353]

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs)

DO powder; AuNPs

Dendrobium officinale (DO)

Better anti-tumor efficiency compared with DO extraction alone without increasing toxicity in vivo and in vitro

[362]

AuNPs

Licochalcone A

Increased solubility in aqueous solution; green method

[363, 364]

AuNPs

Pholiota adiposa

Significantly improved immune regulation and anti-tumor effect in comparison; no toxicity both in vivo and in vitro

[365]

AuNPs

Paeonia mountan

Fulfills the requirement of ideal nanodrug and it potentially inhibited the inflammation in in vitro murine microglial BV2; alleviates the neuroinflammation and improves the motor coordination in Parkinson induced mice

[366]

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)

Pluronic F127; CTAB; TWEEN20; MSNs

Resveratrol

Solubility, drug release, and transport enhancement of resveratrol; enhanced anti-inflammatory activity

[372]

Lipid-coated MSN@p(NIPAM-co-MA)

EVO; BBR

Improved efficacy and biocompatibility of the drug pair; desirable drug profiles at the low pH and higher temperature of the tumor microenvironment; excellent synergistic therapy effects in vitro and in vivo; lower systemic toxicity

[374]

Hyaluronan (HA) or polyethyleneimine-FA (PEI-FA); MSNs

Curcumin

More precise targeting and higher accumulation in tumors; good biocompatibility and low toxicity; inhibited the tumor growth to a greater degree

[375]

FA–conjugated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (FA-MSNs)

Rhodojaponin III

Prolonged RJ-III release in vitro; reduced the cytotoxicity of RJ-III (P < 0.01); good targeting effect; improved the LD50 value of RJ-III in mice

[376]

Organic/Inorganic Nanohybrids

Indocyanine green (ICG); perfluoropentane (PFP); MSNs; PEG

Paclitaxel

Effective intracellular ICG deliver; NIR-responsive hyperthermia; permitting photothermal therapy and photoacoustic imaging; potent and synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy

[382]

PEG-b-P(CPTM-co-MPS) and PEG-b-P(CPTHM-co-MPS)

CPT

Codelivery both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs; site-specific synchronized corelease enhanced combination chemotherapeutic efficacy and reduced systemic toxicity

[384]

N-(2-hydroxypropyl methyl) acrylamide (HPMA) copolymer-gadolinium-paclitaxel-Cyanine5.5 (pHPMA-Gd-PTX-Cy5.5)

Paclitaxel

Enhanced imaging capacity of the theranostic nanomedicine; residence time significantly prolonged; increased accumulation at the tumor site; inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis of the 4T1 murine breast cancer cells

[420]

Monomethoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(lactide) (mPEG-PLA)

Docetaxel

Clear spherical shape; sustained release of the drug; time-dependent anticancer effect in the squamous cancer cells; significantly higher cancer cell apoptosis in HSC-3 cancer cells; controlled the tumor progression in HSC-3 cancer cells

[400]

Polyethylene glycol-BA (PEG-BA)

BA

Increased NFκB/p65 protein expression; comparable antioxidant potential with ascorbic acid; improved reduction of hydroperoxide levels

[399]

Nanocarriers based on active ingredients from TCMs

Baicalin and flavonoid glycosides

Baicalin and flavonoid glycosides

Significantly enhanced bacteriostatic activity; stronger affinity to bacteria; good biocompatibility; excellent antibacterial performance

[409]

BBR and cinnamic acid

BBR and Cinnamic acid

better inhibitory effect on multidrug-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and stronger ability for biofilm removal; nonhemolytic with little toxicity in vitro and in vivo

[412]

Lipophilic alkyl BBR derivatives (BDs) and rhamnolipids (RHL)

BDs and RHL

Enhanced hydrophilicity, successfully penetrated through mucus layer without interacting with mucins; substantial ability to eradicate H. pylori biofilms; inhibited the adherence of H. pylori on both biotic and abiotic surfaces

[413]

Ursolic acid

Ursolic acid

Near-spherical shape; higher antiproliferative activity; significantly caused apoptosis; decreased the expression of COX-2/VEGFR2/VEGFA; increased the immunostimulatory activity of TNF-α, IL-6, and IFN-β; inhibiting tumor growth and having the ability of liver protection in vivo

[408]

Poria cocos; Liquidambar formosana

Poria cocos; Liquidambar formosana; PTX

Improved therapeutic effect on tumors through synergistic action; reducing chemotherapeutic cardiotoxicity and prolonging survival; superior anti-inflammatory efficacy

[409]

Ursolic acid and PTX

Ursolic acid and PTX

Facile structure regulation and drug loading; synergistic therapeutic efficacy; reducing the risk of liver damage; benefiting and eliminating the trouble of the toxic side effects

[414]