Fig. 1

Nanoparticle vaccine for activation of the immune system. A variety type of NPs such as lipid-based vehicles, polymer-based vehicles, inorganics-based vehicles, and bio-inspired vehicles are used in vaccine formulation. NP cores with antigen are protected against enzymatic degradation, while surface immobilization mimics pathogen presentation of antigen. Antigens delivered with NPs are recognized by APCs and processed inside, inducing T cell responses. When the immune system is stimulated, CD8⁺ T cells are capable of recognizing tumor antigens and killing malignant cells. Moreover, provoking B cells leads to the secretion of antibodies and the activation of humoral immunity. The illustration was made using Biorender. NPs, nanoparticles; ISCOMs, immunostimulatin complexes; APCs, antigen-presenting cells; MHC, major histocompatibility complex