Table 1 Summary sources of EVs used in EV-loaded composite hydrogels for wound healing

Human umbilical cord (including HUVECs, hUCMSCs, hUCB-MNCs)

Easy to obtain, causes less immune rejection than other cells

[48,49,50,51,52]

BMSCs

Commonly used, low infection rate, low immune rejection reactions, and stable cell culture and biological effects

[36, 53]

ADSCs

Easy to obtain, longer lifespan and higher proliferative capacity

[33]

GMSCs

Easy to obtain, strong proliferation ability and significant biological effects for tissue regeneration and immune regulation

[54]

EPCs

Can accelerate the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of HUVECs as well as the treatment of diabetic wound healing

[55]

Synovium-derived stem cells

Tissue-specific properties, efficient repair of tissues and promote wound healing

[56, 57]

M2 macrophages

Polarization of M1 macrophages to the M2 phenotype, promote wounds to the proliferative phase

[58]

PRP

Cheap, easy to obtain, encapsulate many growth factors from platelets

[59]

Royal jelly

Have antibacterial and regenerative properties, can stimulate MSC migration

[60]

Engineered EVs

Endowed with distinct characteristics through management

[61, 62]