Table 1 Surface topography of natural surfaces exhibiting antibacterial properties

Plant

Taro leaf

C. esculenta

Polygon shape

Bulge: 15–30 μm diameter, Papilla: 10–15 μm diameter

159 ± 2

[31, 56]

Lotus leaf

N. nucifera

Micro-size bulge shape

Bulge: 1–5 μm height

142 ± 8.6

[34, 57]

Animal

Gecko skin

L. steindachneri

Hair like nano-structure

4 µm length, top radius of 10–20 nm and submicron spacing

150

[42, 43]

Shark skin

Spiny Dogfish

3D riblet micro-structure

Triangular riblets, 100–300 µm width, 15 µm peak radius, 200–500 nm height and 100–300 µm spacing

–

[37]

C. brachyurous

3D riblet micro-structure

5 riblets 200–300 µm in height, 20–30 µm diameter and 50–80 µm riblet spacing

–

[38]

Insect

Cicada wing

M. intermedia

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 241 nm, diameter: 156 nm, spacing: 165 nm

135.5

[46]

A. spectabile

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 182 nm, diameter: 207 nm, spacing: 251 nm

113.2

[46]

C. aguila

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 182 nm, diameter: 159 nm, spacing: 187 nm

95.7

[46]

C. maculata

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 309 nm, diameter: 97 nm, spacing: 92 nm

76.8 ± 13.9

[45]

P. scitula

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 282 nm, diameter: 84 nm, spacing 84 nm

91.9 ± 5.9

[45]

M. hebes

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 164 nm, diameter: 85 nm, spacing: 95 nm

78.4 ± 5

[45]

L. bifuscata

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 200 nm, diameter: 90 nm, spacing: 117 nm

81.3 ± 8.3

[45, 58]

M. conica

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 159 nm, diameter: 95 nm, spacing: 115 nm

93.9 ± 8.3

[45]

M. durga

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 257 nm, diameter: 89 nm, spacing: 89 nm

134.8 ± 5.7

[45]

A. bindusara

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 234 nm, diameter: 84 nm, spacing: 91 nm

135.5 ± 5.2

[45, 58]

M. mongolica

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 417 nm, Diameter: 128 nm, Spacing: 47 nm

123.3 ± 12.7

[45]

P. radha

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 288 nm, diameter: 137 nm, spacing: 44 nm

136.5 ± 5.2

[45]

D. vaginata

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 363 nm, diameter: 132 nm, spacing: 56 nm

141.3 ± 3.3

[45]

D. rasingna

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 316 nm, diameter: 128 nm, spacing: 47 nm

141.6 ± 4.5

[45]

M. opalifer

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 418 nm, diameter: 148 nm, spacing: 48 nm

143.8 ± 6

[45, 58]

T. vacua

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 446 nm, diameter: 141 nm, spacing: 44 nm

144.2 ± 6.8

[45]

T. jinpingensis

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 391 nm, diameter: 141 nm, spacing: 46 nm

146 ± 2.6

[45]

C. atrata

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 462 nm, diameter: 85 nm, spacing: 90 nm

137.9

[58]

P. claripennis

Nano-pillar (conical shape)

Height: 200 nm, base diameter: 100 nm, cap diameter: 60 nm, spacing: 170 nm

147 ± 47

[11, 12]

Dragonfly wing

S. vulgatum

Nano-pillar

Height: 80–90 nm, diameter: 150–20 nm

–

[49]

Butterfly wing

Blue M. didius

Scales with aligned micro-grooves

Diameter: 1–2 µm, spacing: 1–2 µm

160

[59]