Mechanism | Outcome | Refs. |
---|---|---|
Imbalance of biological molecules |
Reduced antioxidant and antiprotease enzyme activity (SOD, CAT, GPx, α1 antitrypsin); Altered expression of ROS-related enzymes (decreased in CAT, GPx, SOD, and increase in iNOS); Activation of metallo proteinases | [45,46,47,48,49] |
Intracellular signaling | Altered expression of ROS related enzymes (decreased in CAT, GPx, SOD, and increase in iNOS) | [50, 51] |
Mitochondrial respiration | Altered mitochondrial function | [46, 48, 52, 53] |
Upregulation of gene transcription (NF-κB and, AP-1) and increase in cellular cytokine production | Increased gene expression of inflammatory mediators and cytokines (IL-1, TNF-α, IL-8, GM-CSF, iNOS) | [54] |
Nuclear histone acetylation/deacetylation balance | Decreased HDAC2 activity and protein expression chronic inflammation (chronic remodelling) | [55, 56] |
Remodelling of DNA/chromatin | Decreased histone deacetylase 2 | [57] |