Table 3 Several examples showing the advanced prototypes of MSNs for tissue engineering and other miscellaneous biomedical applications

Tissue engineering

SiO₂-NaHA/pNIPAAm

Core–shell

450–1000 nm

Injectable polymer-coated nanogels improved the stimulus–response and mechanical strength towards bioprinting

[481]

PAH-MSNs

PAH modified over the surface

175 nm

The delivery of 5-AZA regulated the differentiation of P19 cells to cardiomyocytes

[379]

AA-MSNs

AA-encapsulated in MSNs

94.9 ± 8.3 nm

AA delivery from MSNs induced the differentiation of human ES cells into cardiomyocytes efficiently

[380]

MSNs

Pristine MSNs

 ~ 200 nm

These MSNs provided enhanced osteoblast differentiation, bone mineralization and promoted angiogenesis

[482]

Antibiotics/antimycotics-spider silk–MSNs

MSNs-dispersed in spider silk hydrogels

MSNs- 72 nm

Composite- > 2 μm

These antimicrobials-loaded MSNs provided excellent antimicrobial properties, promoting fibroblast cell adhesion and proliferation

[483]

MSN-Dex@CS/PLLA

CS-coated MSNs in PLLA

783 ± 342 nm

Altered physicochemical and mechanical properties of PLLA offered favorable interfaces for MSCs proliferation and osteogenic differentiation

[484]

MSNs-IGF

IGF-loaded MSNs

384 ± 134 nm

IGF delivery from biodegradable MSNs increased the cell survival rate of mesenchymal stem cells towards cardiac stem cell therapy

[480]

D-MSNs

DMOG-loaded in mesopores

90 nm

Sustained release of DMOG from MSNs facilitated angiogenesis and osteogenesis towards bone tissue regeneration

[485]

BMP-2 + Dex@CS-MSNs

Chitosan-coated over the surface

100–200 nm

pH-responsive release of Dex and BMP-2 from MSNs coated with chitosan stimulated osteoblast differentiation

[486]

Eu-MSNs

Eu-doped in MSNs

280–300 nm

Eu³⁺ doped MSNs stimulated the pro-inflammatory response of macrophages and further activated osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs and angiogenic activity of HUVECs

[487]

PA-ACP@AF-eMSN

Expanded mesopores and PA-ACP-loaded MSNs

200 nm

Polymer-stabilized intermediate precursors of calcium phosphate were delivered for intrafibrillar mineralization of collagen for in-situ mineralization of bone and teeth

[488]

DMOG-NPSNPs

DMOG-loaded in amine-modified silicas

45 nm

These nanoporous silicas induced hypoxic conditions and promoted blood vessel formation

[489]

HA-DMSN

Calcium-doped dendritic MSNs

 > 2 μm

Increased surface area, calcium deposition, and surface roughness improved bone repair in a rat cranial bone defect model

[490]

ADA-GEL/Ica-MSN

MSNs in hydrogels

 > 2 μm

These hydrogel composites with MSNs enhanced osteoblast proliferation, adhesion, and differentiation ability for bone repair

[491]

DBM-MSN/152RM

DBM scaffolds modified with MSNs

 > 100 μm

These scaffolds promoted cell migration, differentiation, proliferation, regeneration, and angiogenesis by regulation of PTP1B

[492]

CS-SF/MSNs/GN

Hybrid gel with silk fibroin and chitosan

 > 2 μm

Well-defined injectability and thermo-responsiveness enhanced mechanically strong and elastic characteristics of the composites improved growth, matrix deposition, and osteogenic development of cells

[493]

Ca-mSiO₂

Ca-doped MSNs

230 nm

The MSNs as fillers presented the ability to induce mineralization, enhance mechanical properties, and prevent secondary caries

[494]

Wound healing

MSN-Ceria

Ceria nanocrystals decorated over the surface

 < 100 nm

These composites offered strong tissue adhesion strength, restricted ROS in the wound, accelerated the wound healing process

[388]

Ag-MSNs

Ag-doped MSNs

 ~ 200 nm

DNase I delivered from Ag-MSNs showed enhanced antibacterial effects through promoting biofilm biomass dispersing ability

[495]

Ag-MSNs@CTAB

Janus-type

280–380 nm

pH-responsive release of antibiotics offered efficient antibacterial ability

[496]

Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@RF&PMOs

Janus-type

260 (center) + 150 nm (pods)

These tetra-pods offered high bacteria adhesion efficiency and high antibiotic loading towards treating bacterial infections

[387]

MSNLP

β-CD-capped, PEI-modified MSNs

90–110 nm

These nanocomposites were able to load large-molecular medicine (AMPs) to eradicate pathogenic biofilms

[497]

Peptide enrichment

l-Cys-Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂

Core–shell,

Cys-modified over the surface

250 nm

The composites with magnetic field assistance, and strong hydrophilicity, presented highly effective against enriching endogenous glycopeptides

[498]

Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂-Cu²⁺

Core–shell, Cu²⁺ immobilized in the mesopores

350 nm

High dense Cu²⁺ ions immobilized in the mesopores improved the enrichment of hydrophobic and hydrophilic peptides from standard peptides solution

[187]

Fe₃O₄@TiO₂-ZrO₂@mSiO₂

Core–shell

886.5 nm

The magnetic MSNs with binary metal oxides showed enhanced enrichment performance towards mono- and multi-phospho-peptides with better sensitivity

[393]

Ti⁴⁺-Mag graphene@SiO₂

Core–shell, Ti⁴⁺ immobilized in the mesopores

250 nm

These composites presented great capability of fast enrichment for endogenous phosphorylated peptides

[394]

Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂-Cu²⁺

Core–shell

400 nm

Improved hydrophilic and biocompatibility of designed composites enriched the endogenous peptides from human saliva and optimized the detection of endogenous peptides

[499]

Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂@Ti⁴⁺-Zr⁴⁺

Core–shell

300 nm

The composites with more robust specificity, higher sensitivity, and better efficiency presented enrichment ability towards both mono- and multi-phosphorylated peptides

[500]

Artificial enzymes

His-BMSs, Pro-BMSs, Trp-BMSs

Amino acid-templated MSNs

150–270 nm, 130–270 nm, 150–290 nm

Comparative studies indicated that the composites with the highest wettability and the fastest degradation rate showed the lowest brain distribution ability and good biocompatibility

[501]

EMSN-PtNCs

Pt loaded in the mesopore

200 nm

The enclosed Pt nanoclusters showed higher catalytic activity for H₂O₂ released from living cells

[502]

Au-MSN

Au NPs incorporated into the pore wall

 ~ 1 μm

These composites presented excellent enzymatic peroxidase-like activity for determining the dopamine concentration

[503]

T-DMSNs@Au

Au load in pores of thiolated DMSNs

162 nm

These thiolated nanocomposites with different densities of thiol groups and altered Au sizes showed significant impact with the highest sensitive peroxidase-like activity at an Au size is 1.9 nm

[504]

PEG/Ce-Bi@DMSN

Core–shell nanorods

 ~ 120 nm

The nanocomposites exhibited peroxidase-mimic and catalase-mimic catalytic activities, GSH depletion, and higher hydrophilicity

[505]

Au-MS

Janus-type

 ~ 100 nm

These nanodevices presented improved enzymatic processes of invertase and glucose oxidase

[506]

PdCo@MSNs

PdCo NPs-coated over the surface

200–250 nm

These nanocomposites exhibited peroxidase-mimic and catalase-mimic catalytic activities

[507]

Au@Pt@SiO₂

Core–shell

 ~ 110 nm

The antigen-loaded composites presented susceptible peroxidase-like activity with catalytic stability and robustness

[508]

Nucleic acid detection

CaF₂: Yb/Ho@MSNs load on TPU@GO

DNA probes-linked GO

 > 2 μm

Co-hybridization between target miRNA sequences and the DNA probe enriched the accuracy of miRNA detection

[404]

MB@MSNs–DNA

DNA-gated MSNs

 ~ 100 nm

DNA H1 has miRNA response, MB release, and intercalate in dsDNA enhanced significant electrochemical response

[509]

Ca:RE³⁺@MSNs

Ca:RE³⁺ loaded in pores

 ~ 100 nm

Different rare earth elements provided different luminescence to detect different miRNAs

[510]

AuNP@g-C₃N₄QDs@mSiO₂

Core–shell

 ~ 220 nm

Enhances ECL signal and high stability towards determining Shiga toxin–generating E. Coli STEC gene

[403]

DNA-M-PS40

Core–shell

1350 ± 50 nm

The higher surface area of the composites allowed to unequivocally detection the different high- and low-risk HPV DNA types

[511]

DNA@MSNs

Modified over the surface

60 ± 4 nm

dsDNA open and RhB restored fluorescence for developing innovative early disease diagnosis and cell screening assay

[512]

MSN@HRP-DNA

HRP-modified on the surface

26.3 nm

CRET, higher loading, and low CL background improved the sensitivity and selectivity of miRNA detection

[513]

NaYF₄:Yb,Er@NaYF₄@mSiO₂

Core–shell

40 nm

The designed LRET nanoprobes accurately detected target miRNA

[514]

Large pore-MSNs

Thiol functionalized MSNs

5 μm

Large mesopores and binding sites detected short DNA sequences ~ 20 bp

[402]

ssDNA-Au@SiO₂

Hemispherical coat of Au on silica

450 nm

Excellent SERS effect with high sensitivity provided ultrasensitive detection of CpG methyltransferase

[515]

Rub-Pt@mSiO₂

Modification

380 nm

Strong ECL signal of encapsulated nanocomposites presented high sensitivity of miRNA let-7b

[516]

Au-GNST/SiNP-IL/SPE

Loaded on electrode

 ~ 600 nm

Specific recognition of CTCs, with DNA probe and RCA process, generated a strong electrochemical signal

[517]

Photoluminescence

MCM-41-SH-Tb(DPA)₃

Grafted using the chelating ligand, 4-Vinylpyridine2,6-dicarboxylic acid

 > 200 nm

These lanthanides immobilized constructs presented bright green and red emission, long luminescence lifetime, high quantum efficiency

[518]

CsPb₂Br₅NCs-MS

Core–shell

230 nm

These constructs offered bright emission and enhanced water stability, thermal stability, and photostability

[519]

SiO₂@ANA-Si-Eu-phen@SiO₂

Core–shell-shell

200 nm

These multi-shell constructs exhibited strong luminescence properties and excellent luminescence stability

[520]

QDs/MSF/Au

Multilayered metals on the Mica membrane

 > 2 μm

Luminescence resulted in the near-infrared region with sufficient stability and low radiation loss

[521]

R-CDs@MPS

Modification on the surface

82 nm

Reducing the aggregation-induced self-quenching of R-CDs enhanced luminescent efficiency and CRI of WLED

[522]

CsPbX₃@MSN

Deposited in pores

120 nm

CsPbX₃ perovskite nanocrystals-encapsulation in MSNs offered better stability, achieving high PL quantum yield

[523]

Er₂O₃@MSNs

Deposited in pores

–

The different particle sizes of the host materials have shown a biggish influence on the luminescence characters

[524]