Fig. 4

ROS distribution in roots and root hair curling. a ROS production mediated by MF-NPs under abiotic stress. b, c Root tip phenotype and relative ROS content in root tip on day 7 post inoculation. root tip (n = 3) and (n = 3) grown in vermiculite (10 mg L⁻¹ MF-NPs exposure) stained with NBT (to detect O₂^∙−). d, e Root maturation zone phenotype and relative ROS content in root matuaration zone with H₂O₂ stained with DAB. f Morphological changes of root hair on day 4 post inoculation with rhizobia. g Number of curled root hair (treatment number, n = 9)