Table 1 Preclinical NPs for the treatment of liver fibrosis

Anionic HA-containing NPs

LSECs, Tregs

Suppressing antigen-specific immune responses

[29]

AB diblock copolymers NPs

LSECs, KCs

Leading to immune inflammation

[33]

Stab2-containing NPs

LSECs, Tregs

Clearing of lipoproteins

[30]

Mannose-modified albumin NPs

Macrophages

TGFβ-siRNA to CD206 + as an anti-fibrotic strategy

[37]

CMC-containing NPs

Macrophages

Reducing host immune response

[40]

PS-containing NPs

Macrophages

Reducing collagen fiber deposition

[42]

silk or silicon-containing NPs

Macrophages

Pro-inflammatory phenotype

[69]

hydrogel particles

M2-polarized macrophages

Improving immunocompromised and impaired angiogenesis

[108, 109]

DEX/HA-TK-ART PMs

M2-polarized macrophages

HIF-1α/NF-κB signaling cascade

[90]

mLNP-siHMGB1

Macrophages, HSCs

Inhibiting the activation of HSCs

[38]

DSPE-PEG-CeO2 NPs

Macrophages, HSCs

Reducing inflammation

[86]

CNF

HSCs, macrophages

Increasing glycolysis and reprogramming and reducing initiated inflammatory

[70]

VA-SLNs

HSCs

Reducing PPARγ/SREBPs-mediated lipid accumulation

[61]

CS sulfate PMs

HSCs

Anti-fibrotic strategy

[63]

CS-coated green silver NPs

HSCs

Bounding to the fibrogenic protein TGF-β

[65]

hydrogels

HSCs

Blocking the TGF-β1/Smad pathway

[66]

RGD

HSCs

Inhibiting the proliferation of HSCs

[82]

Chol-PCX/miRNA NPs

HSCs, T cells

Disrupting the lipid metabolic network

[73, 74]

GQD

HSCs

Inhibiting lipid peroxidation, apoptosis, and autophagy

[87]

CeO2 NPs

HSCs

Antioxidant effect

[85]

FPL

HSCs

Antioxidant effect

[88]

ChiBil carrying losartan

HSCs

attenuating iron death

[89]

PEG-PLGA-containing NPs

LSECs, hepatocytes and HSCs

Constricting abnormal blood vessels, reducing MVD

[99]

Self-assembled PMs

LSECs, hepatocytes and HSCs

Avoiding the hepatotoxicity and side effects

[96]

NPs laponite

HUVECs

enhancing HIF-1α and VEGF expression, accelerating neovascularization

[110]