Table 1 Studies investigating the role of EVs within the bone microenvironment on regulating bone regeneration

bMSCs

miR-25

Protecting Runx2 from ubiquitination and degradation, enhanced fracture healing

[49]

miR-146a-5p, miR-503-5p, miR-483-3p, miR-129-5p

PI3K/Akt and MAPK signalling pathways

[31]

-

Decreased pro-inflammatory gene expression and enhanced osteogenesis

[53]

miR-29a

Promoted angiogenesis in HUVECs by targeting VASH-1

[50]

Osteoblasts

miR-3084-3p, miR-680, miR-677-3p, miR-5100

Enhanced osteogenesis by activating Wnt signalling pathway

[64]

miR-143

Inhibited osteogenesis by targeting Runx2. Enhanced NF-κB expression promoting osteoclastogenesis

[67]

Osteoclasts

miR-214-3p

Inhibition of osteoblastic bone formation by inducing osteoclast differentiation via the PTEN/PI3k/AKT pathway

[75]

miR-23a-5p

Suppressed osteoblast differentiation via inhibiting Runx2

[74]

Osteocytes

miR-181b-5p

Osteogenesis of hPDLSCs via the PTEN/AKT signalling pathway

[79]

Annexin A5, Ywhae, Ywhab

Stimulation of MSC recruitment and osteogenesis

[78]

Endothelial cells

miR-126

Accelerated bone regeneration by stimulating angiogenesis by targeting Raf/ERK signalling

[30]

miR-27-a

Prevented femoral head osteonecrosis by stimulating osteogenesis

[84]

Macrophages

miR-155 (M1 EVs)

miR-378a (M2 EVs)

M1 EVs inhibited osteogenesis, M2 EVs increased osteogenesis

[92]

miR-690

M2 EVs promotes osteogenesis and inhibited adipogenesis via IRS-1/TAZ signalling

[93]