Fig. 5

Different strategies for preparing artificial EVs. A Top-down strategy. Artificial EVs were produced with the following approaches: cells were forced to pass through membrane pores or microfluidic devices; cells were exposed to sonication in alkaline solution; cells were disrupted by nitrogen cavitation; cells released EVs by cell membrane blebbing with sulfhydryl-blocking. B Bottom-up strategy. By supramolecular chemistry, synthetic materials combined fundamental components from cells to form the EMs. C Hybrid strategy. The native EVs hybridised with synthetic liposome NPs/other sources of EVs to form the HEs. D Encapsulation strategy. The inorganic or organic NPs were encapsulated with the native EV membrane that obtained EV membrane-camouflaged NPs