Table 2 Overview of the functions of ApoBDs derived from different cells
Source | Application | Cell type | Function and mechanism | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Malignant tumor | Drug delivery | Mouse breast metastatic cancer cells | ApoBDs penetrate the blood–brain barrier | [102] |
Human cancer cells (breast, glioblastoma, and hepatic cancer) and mouse breast cancer cells | ApoBDs target macrophages and cancer cells | [19] | ||
Human melanoma cell | ApoBDs target DCs | [113] | ||
Therapeutic | Human hepatoma cells | ApoBDs promote survival of HSC via activation of the JAK1/STAT3 pathway | [129] | |
Human glioblastoma cell | ApoBDs-mediated transfer of spliceosomal proteins | [109] | ||
Murine melanoma | Induce anti-tumor immune responses | [111] | ||
Diagnostic tools | Prostate cancer cells | A higher number of ApoBDs | ||
MSCs | Therapeutic | Murine MSCs | Promote angiogenesis | [6] |
BMSCs | Reduced COX2 expression | [16] | ||
Murine BMSCs | Promote M2 macrophage polarization | [6] | ||
Drug delivery | Human MSCs | ApoBDs-laden hyaluronic acid hydrogel for endometrial regeneration | [74] | |
Immune cells | Therapeutic | Mouse macrophage | ApoBDs promote the proliferation of recipient epithelial cells | [123] |
Human lymphoblasts | Immunogenic molecules are translocated into ApoBDs | [101] | ||
DCs | ApoBDs are phagocytosed by other DCs | [124] | ||
Human T cells | Induce unresponsiveness of peripheral T cells | [95] | ||
Mouse monocyte | ApoBDs facilitate viral propagation | [7] | ||
Diagnostic tools | Human plasma | ApoBDs as biomarkers for measuring apoptosis | [125] | |
Other cells | Therapeutic | Human vitiligo melanocyte | TyrP-1 and Asp230 concentrated in ApoBDs | [126] |
Rat endplate chondrocytes | Adjust ENPP1, ANK, and TNAP expression | [8] | ||
Osteoclast | Activate RANKL reverse signaling | [82] | ||
Mouse insulinoma β cells | Reestablish peripheral immune tolerance | [127] | ||
Rat cardiomyocyte | Stimulate proliferation and differentiation of myocardial cells | [128] |