Fig. 12

a Effect of sEVs on monocytes and macrophages. Change in the secretion of the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α after the addition of EVs to the monocyte culture. b Increase in the production of anti-inflammatory IL-10 by monocytes treated with sEVs, especially GMSC sEVs, despite the presence of LPS. c BMSC and GMSC sEVs stimulate macrophages to upregulate markers such as arginase and CD206, which are characteristic of the anti-inflammatory macrophage phenotype. d–e Schematics showing the administration of microparticles loaded with antibiotics and GMSC sEVs connected to the particles via an MMP-2-sensitive linker. Comparison of the effect of sEVs-microparticles on the suppression of bacterial growth evaluated 8 weeks after microparticle administration. f µCT images taken after 8 weeks of treatment and evaluation of the relative alveolar bone area in different treatment groups. g) Comparison of the distance between the alveolar bone crest and cementoenamel junction (CEJ). (h) Relative mRNA expression levels of BMP2, RUNX2, OCN, and COL1A1 in the periodontal tissue. Healthy—healthy rats; Untreated—untreated periodontitis; Blank—PLGA microparticles; Minocycline–MP—minocycline-loaded microparticles; Soluble—minocycline and GMSC sEVs administered in solution; Full—PLGA microparticles with GMSC sEVs and minocycline.