Table 3 Loading methods for extracellular vesicles

Pre-loading

ADMSCs

Incubation

sEV-CUR: 74.05 ± 2.52

 N/A

Curcumin

82.26 ± 5.25%

Excellent anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic capacity; Favorable bioavailability; Controlled release

[110]

HEK293T

Incubation

EVs (ICG/PTX): 149.9 ± 5.2

-30.2

ICG/PTX

ICG: 60.7%; PTX: 51.9%

Simultaneous therapy and high accumulation at the tumor site; High encapsulation efficiency and cellular uptake; Photo-stability and storage stability

[111]

HL-60;

dHL60;

MCF-7;

THP-1

Infection

HL-60: 170.5 ± 49.4; dHL-60: 246.8 ± 19.5

 N/A

Penicillin/ PTX /MCP-1/MiR-16/Cas-9-GFP/Cas9

N/A

High encapsulation efficiency and production efficiency; Low immunogenicity

[112]

MSCs

Infection and incubation

60–150

 N/A

CTX/TRA-IL

15.43 ± 0.44%

Synergistic effects and few side effects

[113]

ADSCs

Infection

30–150

 N/A

NT-3 siRNA

N/A

Stable and functional delivery

[114]

HUVECs

USMB

N/A

N/A

CTG/BSA-FITC

N/A

High encapsulation efficiency and improved EVs production

[115]

Post-loading

RAW 264.7

Incubation

100–200

 N/A

HA/CV/D-OX

N/A

Polarization to M1 macrophages; High cellular uptake; Excellent antitumor effect

[117]

THP-1

Incubation

A15-Exo: 94.1 ± 104.4

A15-Exo: − 9.68 ± 0.29

DOX

NA

Targeting ability; high yield; efficient release

[118]

A549

Incubation

DOX/LND-16k: 93.2 ± 24.2;

DOX/LND-120k: 70 ± 11.1

DOX/LND-16k: -15.2; DOX/LND-120k: -15.9

DOX/LN-D

DOX/LND-16k: 4.16 ± 1.9%;

DOX/LND-120k: 2.77 ± 0.35%

Excellent anticancer effect (DNA damage, ATP inhibition, and ROS generation)

[119]

Macrophage

Sonication

115.0 ± 8.3

 N/A

TPP1

N/A

High loading capacity; Sustained release; Bio-inspired; Non-viral and favorable stability

[243]

DOX: 162.2 ± 1.6;

PTX: 129.4 ± 2.3

 N/A

DOX/PT-X

N/A

Superior intracellular accumulation and drug accumulation in cancer cells; Low immunogenicity and favorable stability

[120]

hMSCs

Electroporation

~ 210

~ -10

GPX4 siRNA

16.6%

Magnetic targeting; BBB penetration ability; Synergistic ferroptosis therapy; Good biocompatibility and safety

[123]

4T1

Extrusion

MSNs: 125 ± 15;

E-MSNs: 150 ± 11

MSNs: 20.5 ± 1.2;

ID@MS-Ns: -5.8 ± 1.5; ID@E-MSNs: -28.9 ± 3

ICG/DOX

N/A

High cellular uptake and long-term retention; Synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy; High purity; Favorable biocompatibility

[125]

MSCs

Extrusion

135.9–194.9

-7.23

Curcumin

75.53%

Relieves neuroinflammation

[126]

4T1

Extrusion

173

N/A

DOX

7.4%

Prominent biocompatibility; Synergistic photothermal properties; Controlled release drug; Good stability

[127]

U87;

U251

Saponin

U87-sEVs: 76.71 ± 21.7;

U251-sEVs: 79.11 ± 28.77

~ -12.5

DOX

N/A

Excellent anti-oxidative and anti-apoptosis ability; Favorable bioavailability; Controlled release; Outstanding stability

[129]

U251-GMs;

SF7761- GMs

Microfluidics

U251GMs: 150

SF7761 GMs: 100

 N/A

DOX

U251GMs: 31.98%;

SF7761 GMs: 19.7%

Homing effect; Simple; Efficient setup; Adjustable condition

[132]

Human plasma

Acoustofluidics

N/A

N/A

DOX

~ 30%

High loading efficiency; One-step process; Rapid encapsulation

[133]