Table 2 Applications of functional hydrogel in several-year-old restoration

Cell biocompatibility

HA-CHO, GA-tyramine

NbBG

Double cross-linking

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)

Bone elevation to promote regeneration

[99]

IKVAV, HBPAK, and HA-MA

EGF, BFGF

Physical package

Schwann cells

Promote the polarization of M2 macrophages

[26]

Ac-BP

Mg²⁺

Photo-crosslinking

Human MSCs (hMSCs)

Release of magnesium ions to regulate cell behavior

[102]

GelMA

BMSCs, NSCs

photo-encapsulation

Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats (200 − 250 g)

Promote stem cell differentiation and motor nerve repair

[103]

Self-healing property

PEG

Xanthan aldehyde

Hydrazone-link

NIH-3T3 cells

Self-healing

[108]

Fmoc peptide, Fmoc-grafted chitosan

Curcumin

Co-assembly

Sprague–Dawley rats (1–3 days, P1)

Slow release of curcumin

109]

aldehyde-modified AHA,

3-methylithiobis (propionylhydrazide)

In-suit cross-linking

Spinal tissue removed rats

Create a microenvironment suitable for nerve and axon growth

[110]

Anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties

Guanosine-boric acid

PDA

3D printing

rMSCs

Reduce bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation

[114]

GelMA

nAg, and halloysite nanotubes

Photopolymerization

Sprague–Dawley rats (200–250 g)

Relieve inflammation and inhibit bacterial infection

[115]

Cell-adaptable neurogenic

ADSCs

Host–guest crosslinking

Sprague–Dawley rats (200–220 g)

Promote the polarization of M2 macrophages

116

Injectable ability

poly (ethylene oxide) diacrylate

Ibuprofen-KYIGSRK

in-situ Michael addition reaction

Sprague–Dawley rats

Concentrated release of ibuprofen

[122]

PLEL

EVs

High temperature gelation

Rat T9 spinal cord clip model

Promote nerve regeneration and accelerate SCI repair

[8]

SF

DA

Co-assembly

Primary hippocampal neuron

Tissue adhesion and hemostasis

[123]

Biological adhesion

Poly (hydroxyethyl methacrylate)

Adhesion proteins

Michael reaction

10% foetal bovine serum

Adhesion enhancement

[129]

Silk Fibroin

Laminin-acrylate, and photoinitiator

ultraviolet irradiated cross-link

NSC

Differentiation and growth of spinal cord axons

[130]

Collagen-fibrin

STromal cell-derived factor-1α, PTX

electrospinning and in-situ sequential cross-linking method

Sprague–Dawley rats (200–220 g)

Lasting connection to the injured site and continuity of nerve terminals

[131]

SF

RGD,

co-assembly

Mice Calvarial Defect Model

Promote the adhesion and proliferation of BMSCs

[132]

Biodegradation

HA-DA

PDA, GeP, and DA

HRP/H2O2 triggers gelation

Sprague–Dawley rats

Good electrical conductivity

[139]

PEG

poly(lactic acid)

Covalent connections

–

dual-drug release

[138]

Multi-functions and coordination2

NH₂-Gelatin

ICH/NSCs, AT-OHA

Sprague–Dawley rats (250–350 g)

Induction of differentiation of NSCs and inhibition of scar tissue

[142]

F127-FE

EVs

Electrostatic interaction

female rats (~ 230 g)

Promote neuronal differentiation and axon formation

[25]

MWCNTs

PME

Self-crosslinking

Sprague–Dawley rats

Promote motor function recovery and myelin/axon regeneration

[146]