Fig. 7

Schematic illustration of Cluster 3: “Therapeutic effects of EVs in SCI”. A EV producer cells are summarized in Fig. 6. Gene-modification and 3D co-cultures are regularly used to further enhance cellular loading of known biological mediators. B For functional cargo makeup on EV surface, techniques are utilized such as surface modification, passive incubation, pH gradient, sonication, electroporation. C For clinical use of engineered EV, local injection and vein injection are effective ways, and hydrogel implantation can achieve sustained controlled release. D EVs have been reported of therapeutic effects such as immunomodulation, glia cell proliferation, and finally axonal regeneration. Created with BioRender.com