Fig. 2

a Photographs of bacterial colonies formed by S. aureus after exposure to acetate buffer (Control), F⁻, TMB, CeO₂, CeO₂ + F⁻, CeO₂ + TMB and CeO₂ + F⁻ + TMB without/with NIR irradiation. Concentration: CeO₂ (30 µg/mL), F⁻ (400 µM), TMB (1 mM), acetate buffer (pH 4, 20 mM). b The statistical analysis of survival rates of S. aureus exposed to different samples without and with NIR irradiation. c Colony images of CeO₂ + TMB (CeO₂: 30 µg/mL, TMB: 1 mM) treated S. aureus with different F⁻ concentrations (0, 10 µM, 50 µM, 200 µM, 400 µM) under dark and NIR light conditions. d The statistical analysis of survival rates of S. aureus exposed to CeO₂ + TMB with varying F⁻ concentrations without and with NIR irradiation. e The OD600 value of the supernatant as a function with the time after being treated with various conditions with S. aureus. f SEM (Scale bar: 500 nm), and g Fluorescence images of S. aureus samples after treatments with Control (acetate buffer), CeO₂ + TMB, CeO₂ + F⁻ + TMB without/with NIR irradiation (Scale bar: 20 μm). Concentration: CeO₂ (30 µg/mL), F⁻ (400 µM), TMB (1 mM), acetate buffer (pH 4, 20 mM). Error bars represent the standard deviation from the mean (n = 3)