Table 1 Overview of nanomedicine designed for treatment in ATC

Chemotherapeutic drug delivery

Doxorubicin

Mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles

High ratio of drug loading and intracellular accumulation of DOX in drug-resistant ATC cells

[24]

Doxorubicin

Dopamine-melanin

nanoparticles

Increase the internalization of DOX in drug-resistant ATC cells

[30]

Doxorubicin

Nanobubbles

Increase intracellular drug content and enhance DOX cytotoxicity

[31]

Doxorubicin

Nanobubbles

Reduce tumor volume and weight, extend tumor doubling time, and diminish the cardiotoxicity of DOX

[32]

Gemcitabine

Liposomes

Increase the cytotoxic effects of gemcitabine

[35]

Camptothecin

Nanosponges of β-cyclodextrin

Increase the overall survival of mice and reduce their growth and metastasis

[36]

Rsveratrol

Polyethylene glycol and polycaprolactone nanoparticles

Inhibit the growth of docetaxel/doxorubicin-resistant ATC cells

[38]

Differentiation agent delivery

All-trans retinoic acid

Liposomes

Induce differentiation of ATC cells and minimize side effects

[49]

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Extracellular vesicles

Increase the mRNA expression levels of TSHR, NIS, and PAX-8 in ATC cells

[53]

Radioiodine delivery

¹³¹I

Human serum albumin - MnO₂

Improve the hypoxic tumor microenvironment and radiotoxicity

[54]

¹³¹I

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles

Increase nanoparticle targeting and thus radiotoxicity

[56]

¹³¹I

Tyrosine–hyaluronic acid–polyethyleneimine

Increase nanoparticle targeting, reactivate TP53 mutants, and improve radiotoxicity

[59]

Gene delivery

NIS gene

Poly-ethylenimine and PEG

Improve the ability to target ATC cells, increase the expression of NIS, and enhance iodide uptake activity

[63]

mRNA encoding NIS

Liposome

Increase NIS expression and facilitate ¹³¹I absorption

[67]

siRNA targeting BRAF

The near-infrared fluorescent polymer

Suppress tumor cell survival, decrease micrometastases, and facilitate noninvasive NIR imaging

[68]

siTERT

Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) modified with chitosan

Reduce tumor growth, migration, and vascularization with no apparent toxicity

[73]

human telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter

The plasmids wrapped by chitosan nanoparticles

Increase the driving efficacy of the promoter and modulate the expression of double suicide genes

[76]

microRNA-34b-5p

Liposomes

Inhibit ATC growth via modulation of VEGF-A

[79]

Co-delivery

17-AAG and Torin 2

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles

The low dose of 17-AAG combined with Torin2 could lead to higher cytotoxicity

[81]

C225 and Au-PFH-NAs

Au-PFH-NAs

Low safety risks and significant synergistic therapy against ATC

[88]

C225 and 10-HCPT

Polymer (lactic acid-co-glycolic acid)

Achieve precisely targeted diagnosis and synergistic therapy against ATC without obvious system toxicity

[89]

Photothermal therapy

Au

Au nanoparticles

Demonstrate selective and cytotoxic effects on ATC cells

[91]

Combination therapy

⁶⁴Cu and CuS

PEG-CuS nanoparticles

Delay tumor growth, prolong the median survival time, and facilitate noninvasive imaging

[94]

¹³¹I and CuS

Bovine serum albumin -CuS nanoparticles

Treat the tumor with lower laser power and temperature, which leads to fewer side effects

[95]

¹³¹I and cerebroid polydopamine (CPDA)

CPDA nanoparticles

Show high photothermal conversion efficiency, iodine labeling efficiency, and good stability

[96]

¹³¹I and indocyanine green (ICG)

ICG

Increase the cytotoxicity and facilitate noninvasive imaging

[97]

Bevacizumab and IR825

Polymer (lactic acid-co-glycolic acid)

Achieve synergistic anti-angiogenic therapy/photothermal therapy and multimodal imaging-guided diagnosis

[99]