Table 2 A summary of osteogenic agents used in bone tissue engineering and their mechanism of action

Chemical agents

AuNPs

Activates the Wnt/β- catenin pathway

[204]

Calcium carbonate

Activates ERK and p38 signaling pathways

[205]

Oxy133

Activates the Hedgehog signalling pathway

[206]

GO

Induces PGE2 secretion and BMP-2 expression

[207]

Metformin

Increases expression BMP-2, Leptin, RUNX2 and activates AMPK pathway

[46]

Ascorbic acid

Enhances ALP activity increasing collagen type 1 secretion

[208, 209]

DEX

Activates TAZ, WNT/β-catenin and MKP-1

[208]

UDCA

Reduces intracellular ROS and pro-inflammatory cytokines

[210]

Small molecules

SP

Induces autophagy by regulation of the AMPK / mTOR pathway

[211]

Bergenin

Activated SIRT1 mRNA and protein level

[212]

Probiotics

Increases the secretion of OSM by macrophages

[213]

CORM

Enhances RUNX2, OPN, OCN and ALP activity

[214]

GFs

BMPs

Stimulate osteogenesis via Smads, MAPK pathways

[215, 216]

Genes

MiR-378

Activates Wnt signaling pathway

[217]

MiR-21

Activates PTEN/PI3K/Akt/HIF-1α pathway

[218]

MiR‐200c

Upregulates Wnt/β‐Catenin signaling

[219]

MiR-675-5p

Activates HIF-1α and Wnt / β-catenin pathway

[220]

Others

LGR6

Activates the Wnt/ β‐Catenin signaling pathway

[221]

MMP2 inhibitor

Activates the p38/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway

[222]