Table 2 Drug delivery systems for anti-tubercular drugs

First line anti tubercular drugs

 Isoniazid

Liposome

Dual purpose of pulmonary drug delivery and alveolar stabilization due to antiatelectatic effect of the surfactant action

[74]

Niosome

Due to the targetability of the drug a low dose of the drug can provide efficient treatment of TB

[75]

Optimum level of drug entrapment efficiency, reducing the dose, dosing frequency, and toxicity in J744A.1 mouse macrophages

[76]

Aluminum nitride- and aluminum phosphide-doped graphene quantum dots

Less toxic and more hydrophobic

[77]

Chitosan nanotube

Prolonged the release time of the drug, providing a uniform release rate

[78]

Multiwall carbon nanotubes

Increased lethality against M. tuberculosis

[79]

Mannitol microsphere containing iron (III) trimesate metal–organic framework MIL-100 nanoparticles

↑ Encapsulation efficiency and aerodynamics; efficient internalization in cytoplasm, making it suitable for deep lung delivery

[80]

Hydrogel-forming microneedle arrays

↑ Permeation aiding transdermal delivery with lyophilized reservoir

[81]

Calcium ion-Sodium Alginate-Piperine-based microspheres

↑ Entrapment efficiency; prolonged release and oral bioavailability

[82]

 Rifampicin

Niosome

By controlling the niosome size, major portion of the drug can be concentrated in the lung region

[83]

Effective compartmentalization of the drug can be achieved in the lymphatic system

[84]

Mannosylated dendrimer

↓ Drug release rate in pH 7.4;

↑ Drug release in pH 5.0 and alveolar macrophage uptake;

biocompatibility;

site-specific delivery

[85]

Microsphere

Preferential accumulation of drug in lungs; delivery can be done through respiratory tract

[86]

Liposome

Drug release in a controlled manner for a longer period of time

[87]

G4-PAMAM dendrimer

Higher stability and pH depended release of the drug

[88]

Liquid-crystalline folate nanoparticle

Sustained release;

↓ Cytotoxicity

[89]

G1-G3 PAMAM dendritic microsphere

PAMAM G3 dendritic microsphere was identified as the suitable drug carrier for the pulmonary delivery

[90]

Liquid crystalline nanoparticles

↓ Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against S.aureus due to enhanced solubility and strong membrane fusion of drug

[91]

Mono-oleate based liquid crystals

Sustained release and 93% loading frequency

[92]

Alginate-cellulose nanocrystal hybrid nanoparticles

↑ Drug encapsulation and sustained release action

[93]

Inulin functionalized with vitamin E (INVITE) micelle

↑ Mucoadhesion properties to the mucin and comparable antimicrobial property against gram-positive bacteria

[94]

Cross-linked poly-β-cyclodextrin (p-β-CD) nanoparticles

Direct lung targeted delivery;

pβCD nanoparticles on their own or loaded with antibiotics have anti-TB action

[95]

Polymeric micelles

deep lung drug delivery

[96]

Mannosylated and PEGylated graphene oxide carrier system

Selective macrophage targeting;

↑ Intracellular drug concentration

[97]

Nanoemulsion

Effective ophthalmic drug delivery;

Electrostatic interaction with mucin leading to increased residence time

[98]

Hydrogel-forming microneedle arrays

↑ Permeation aiding transdermal delivery on combination with poly(ethylene glycol)

[81]

 Pyrazinamide

Hydrogel-forming microneedle arrays

↑ Permeation aiding transdermal delivery with

lyophilized reservoir

[81]

 Ethambutol

Niosome

↑ Lung targeting;

superior biological as compared to free drug

[99]

Solid lipid nanoparticles

Targeted drug delivery;

↓ Dosing frequency;

↑ Bioavailability

[100]

Hydrogel-forming microneedle arrays

↑ Permeation aiding transdermal delivery on combination with directly compressed tablet

[81]

Second line anti tubercular drugs

 Streptomycin

Liposome

↓ In the number of mycobacteria in spleen, but not in lungs

[101]

 Amikacin

Liposome

↓ Viable bacterial count in the liver and spleen

[102]

 Levofloxacin

Liposome

↓ MIC

[103]

 Rifabutin

Liposome

↓ Lung pathology;

↓ Bacterial load in the spleen and liver

[104]

↑ Activity against M. avium

[105]

 Clofazimine

Liposome

↑ Half-life and biodistribution

[106]

↓ Bacterial load in the liver, spleen and kidneys

[107]

↓ Viable bacterial count in lung, liver and spleen at all infection levels

[108]

↓ Bacterial load in spleen, liver and lungs

[109]

Cyclodextrins

β-CD showed the best inclusion capacity,

sufficient pulmonary bioavailability and in vitro deposition performance in lungs

[110]

 Para-amino salicylic acid

Graphene oxide air-dried hydrogel

Strong antibacterial activity; more invasive

[7]

 Moxifloxacin

Poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles

Distribution of nanoparticles near the vicinity of the bacteria

[111]

 Ethionamide

Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles

Simultaneous delivery of ethionamide and its booster BDM41906 in "green" β-CD-based nanoparticles showed the best physico-chemical characteristics;

↓ Pulmonary mycobacterial load

[112]

Spray-dried microparticles

↑ Absorption; higher AUC_(0-t);

↑ Bioavailability

[113]

 Linezolid

Graphene oxide

↑ Bactericidal activity

[114]