Fig. 3

Overview of sEV proteins in prostate cancer angiogenesis, tumor growth, metastasis, drug resistance, immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment. A PCa cell-derived sEV proteins including Integrin α2, PSGR, EBAG9, Cav-1, AR-V7, CXCL14, Integrin αvβ6, Src, LRG1 promote angiogenesis, tumor growth, and metastasis in tumor cells, thereby accelerating tumor progression. B PCa cell-derived sEV proteins including Syntaxin 6, YAP1, P-gp converts drug sensitive PCa cells to drug resistant PCa cells, leading to the development of drug resistance. C PCa cell-derived sEV proteins including PGE2 and PD-L1 mediate the communication with CD8⁺ T cells, thereby participating in immune suppression. AR-V7 androgen receptor-v7, Cav-1 caveolin-1, CXCL4 Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 14, EBAG9 estrogen receptor-binding fragment-associated antigen 9, LRG1 leucine-rich alpha-2-glycoprotein 1, MSCs mesenchymal stem cells, PCa prostate cancer, PSGR Prostate-specific G-protein coupled receptor, YAP1 Yes-associated protein 1, P-gp P-Glycoprotein, PGE2 Prostaglandin E2, PD-L1 programmed cell death ligand 1.