Table 2 The list of different nanoparticle (NP)s used in different plant species under Cd toxicity

ZnO

1 ~ 300 mg/L

Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Leucaena leucocephala, Lactuca sativa

Improved the biomass, yield, photosynthesis, ion homeostasis, RWC, chloroplast structure, Zn concentration, and antioxidant enzyme activity; modulated protein interactors (Metallo endo proteinase 1- and 5-MMP, Alpha-amylase, and Zn-dependent exo peptidase superfamily), diminished Cd uptake, MDA, and oxidative injuries

[9, 19, 82, 84, 85, 121, 122, 225, 226]

FeO

10 ~ 500 mg/L

Triticum aestivum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Oryza sativa

Increased growth, biomass, yield, net photosynthetic rate, gas exchange attributes, biosynthesis of polyamines, ionic homeostasis, and antioxidant activity, Reduced MDA, H₂O₂, ROS, EL, Cd uptake and translocation, and the expression of Cd transporter, HMA2, HMA3, and LCT1

[22, 117, 123, 227]

Fe₂O₃

100 mg/L

Phaseolus lunatus

Improved growth, Chl, photosynthetic efficiency, and RWC, Diminished MDA, MG, H₂O₂, and El

[124]

Fe₃O₄

10 ~ 100 mg/L

Solanum lycopersicum

Reduced Cd and ROS, Increased growth, nutrient intake, proline, free amino acids

[119]

TiO₂

10 ~ 100 mg/kg

Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays, Coriandrum sativum

Increased growth, germination, gas exchange, RWC, photosynthetic pigments, levels of minerals and antioxidants, the activity of antioxidant enzymes, Reduced Cd uptake, MDA, H₂O_2, and EL

[15, 118, 122]

SiO₂

25 ~ 1200 mg/L

Oryza sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, Triticum aestivum, Satureja hortensis

Enhanced growth, net photosynthetic rate, gas exchange attributes, biosynthesis of polyamines, concentrations of K, Mg, Fe, and Si, total phenolic and flavonoid content, and EO yield, Sequestered Cd in the cell wall, Diminished oxidative stress, Cd uptake, MDA, and EL

[88, 89, 117, 125, 228,229,230, 240]

CaO

25 mM

Hordeum vulgare

Increased the biomass, activities of APX, CAT, SOD, and GR, and the content of AsA and GSH; upregulated the expression of Zn-SOD, CAT, APX, GR1 genes

[11]

Se

5 ~ 60 mg/L

Coriandrum sativum, Brassica napus, Capsicum annuum

Improved biomass, Chl, proline, RWC, phenolic and flavonoid contents, nutrients content, activity of CAT, APX and POX, and essential oil yield, Decreased MDA and Cd accumulation, Inhibiting the expression of NADPH oxidases (RBOHC, RBOHD1, and RBOHF1) and glycolate oxidase (GLO), oxidative stress, MDA, H₂O₂, and Cd accumulation, Improved intracellular Ca homeostasis, disulfide bond formation, and the waxy outer layer of the leaf surface

[86, 126, 127, 241]

Hydrogel

25 ~ 100 mg/kg

Oryza sativa

Increased biomass, antioxidant enzyme activity, photosynthesis, and nutrient acquisition, Declined ROS, Cd translocation, and the expression of Cd transporter, HMA2, HMA3, and LCT1

[22]

Ag

40 mg/L

Daucus carota

Declined ROS, MDA, and Cd uptake, Improved growth, Chl, and activity of POX, PPO, and PAL

[128]

Chitosan–Se

5–10 mg/L

Dracocephalum moldavica

Enhanced agronomic traits, photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, proline, phenols, antioxidant enzymes activities, Decreased MDA and H₂O₂

[231]

MWCNTs

100 ~ 1000 mg kg

Increased shoot length, biomass, antioxidant enzymatic activities, and micronutrient content, the accumulation of Cd, Reduced bioavailable Cd in the rhizosphere

[62]

CuO

5 ~ 100 mg/kg

Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa, Hordeum vulgare

Increased growth, biomass, contents of N, P, K, and Ca, Enhanced activity and expression of SOD, POD, and CAT, Downregulated Cd-transporter genes (Nramp5 and HMA2), Declined Cd uptake

[90, 184]