Peripheral extracellular vesicles in neurodegeneration: pathogenic influencers and therapeutic vehicles

Table 1 Essential functions of EVs and their impact on NDDs

Original organs	Original cells	Cargo	Potential effects	Biological function	Reference
Bone-derived EVs	BM-MSCs	NEP, miR-29, Catalase, SphK/S1P	Beneficial	Increase BDNF, activate SphK/S1P signaling, degrade Aβ	[62, 64, 65]
	BM-EPCs	Angiogenic factors	Beneficial	Repair damaged microvascular endothelium	[67]
	BM-immune cells	Unknown	Beneficial	Degrade Aβ	[70]
	Osteocytes	Aβ degradation and mitochondrial energy metabolism factors	Beneficial	Ameliorate cognitive impairment, degrade Aβ	[47]
	BM-immune cells	Unknown	Detrimental	Produce Aβ oligomers, neuroinflammation	[73, 74]
Adipose tissue-derived EVs	AD-MSCs	NEP, let-7b, miR-9, miR-124	Beneficial	Degrade Aβ, anti-inflammation, neuroprotection	[94, 96, 97, 125]
Adipose tissue-derived EVs	Adipocyte	miR-9-3p, miR-6760-3p, miR-6798-3p	Detrimental	Downregulate BDNF, downregulate CREB signaling	[99, 100]
Microbiota-derived EVs	Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Akkermansia muciniphila	Unknown	Beneficial	Increase BDNF, upregulate MeCP2 and Sirt1	[123, 124]
	Helicobacter pylori	LPS, peptidoglycan, toxin	Detrimental	Activate C3-C3aR signaling, induce neuroinflammation	[119, 120]
	Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Paenalcaligenes hominis, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans	LPS, peptidoglycan, toxin	Detrimental	Induced cognitive impairment	[121, 122]

Abbreviations: MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; BM-MSCs, bone marrow-derived MSCs; NEP, neprilysin; SphK/S1P, sphingosine kinase/sphingosine-1-phosphate; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; Aβ, amyloid-β peptides; BM-EPCs, bone marrow endothelial progenitor cells; AD-MSCs, adipose tissue-derived MSCs; CREB, cyclic AMP response element binding protein; Mecp2, methyl-CpG binding protein 2; Sirt1, sirtuin 1; LPS, lipopolysaccharides; C3-C3aR, complement component 3-C3a receptor

ISSN: 1477-3155