Fig. 4
From: Systematic review of the osteogenic effect of rare earth nanomaterials and the underlying mechanisms
Direct osteogenic effects and mechanisms of RE NMs. RE NMs activate the TGF-β/BMP/Smad (A) and Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathways (B) to promote osteogenic differentiation, cell proliferation and migration and inhibit the lipogenic differentiation of MSCs. C RE NMs activate Ca2+ channels, increase intracellular Ca2+ levels, and promote cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. D RE NMs promote collagen secretion and the formation of collagen nucleation sites to promote collagen calcification. BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; BMPR, bone morphogenetic protein receptor; TGF β, transforming growth factor-β; Smad, small mothers against decapentaplegic; Wnt, wingless-type MMTV integration site family; CaR, calcium-sensitive receptors; VGCC, voltage-gated calcium channels; Calm, calmodulin; Cn, calcineurin; IP, inositol triphosphate; IPR inositol triphosphate receptor; COL I, type I collagen