Fig. 6
From: Systematic review of the osteogenic effect of rare earth nanomaterials and the underlying mechanisms
Indirect osteogenic effects and mechanisms of RE NMs. A RE NMs indirectly promote osteogenesis by regulating macrophages and endothelial cells. B RE NMs inhibit osteoclast differentiation through the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in macrophages and may promote M2 polarization through the PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathways to promote bone repair. C RE NMs induce hypoxia in ECs, leading to the upregulation of HIF1α and ROS and promoting angiogenesis and bone formation. HIF1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha; ROS, reactive oxygen species