Fig. 1
From: Role of omics techniques in the toxicity testing of nanoparticles
Models, readout parameters and methods in systems toxicology. a Analytical techniques to characterize NP—macromolecule interactions include spectroscopical techniques, such as UV–vis spectroscopy, photoluminescence, infrared absorption, Raman scattering, circular dichroism spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy. b Biological assays exploit these technologies and, in addition to that, rely on absorbance, fluorescence and luminescence readers, image analysis and a variety of separation and detection platforms (high-pressure liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, electrophoresis, etc.). c Further technologies are used for the analysis of organs, mainly histopathology and various staining techniques. Effects on the entire organism can also be detected by imaging techniques (magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, computed tomography, radiography, photoacoustic tomography, positron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography, thermography) as well as by observation of changes in behavior, appearance, deterioration of health, and death. The predictive value of the obtained results for human toxicology increases from top to bottom